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      Vera Rubin’s work on dark matter led to a paradigm shift in cosmology

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      Bright Galaxies, Dark Matter, and BeyondAshley Jean YeagerMIT Press, $24.95

      Vera Rubin’s research forced cosmologists to radically reimagine the cosmos.

      In the 1960s and ’70s, Rubin’s observations of stars whirling around within galaxies revealed the gravitational tug of invisible “dark matter.” Although astronomers had detected hints of this enigmatic substance for decades, Rubin’s data helped finally convince a skeptical scientific community that dark matter exists (SN: 1/10/20).

      “Her work was pivotal to redefining the composition of our cosmos,” Ashley Yeager, Science News’ associate news editor, writes in her new book. Bright Galaxies, Dark Matter, and Beyond follows Rubin’s journey from stargazing child to preeminent astronomer and fierce advocate for women in science.

      That journey, Yeager shows, was rife with obstacles. When Rubin was a young astronomer in the 1950s and ’60s, many observatories were closed to women, and more established scientists often brushed her off. Much of her early work was met with intense skepticism, but that only made Rubin, who died in 2016 at age 88, a more dogged data collector.

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      On graphs plotting the speeds of stars swirling around galaxies, Rubin showed that stars farther from galactic centers orbited just as fast as inner stars. That is, the galaxies’ rotation curves were flat. Such speedy outer stars must be pulled along by the gravitational grip of dark matter.

      Science News staff writer Maria Temming spoke with Yeager about Rubin’s legacy and what, beyond her pioneering research, made Rubin remarkable. The following discussion has been edited for clarity and brevity.

      Temming: What inspired you to tell Rubin’s story?

      Yeager: It all started when I was working at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., in 2007. I was walking around the “Explore the Universe” exhibit and noticed there weren’t many women featured. But then there was this picture of a woman with big glasses and cropped hair, and I thought, “Who is this?” It was Vera Rubin.

      My supervisor was a curator of oral histories. He was working on Rubin’s, so I asked him about her. He said, “I have one more oral history interview to do with her. Would you like to come?” So I got to interview her. She was charismatic, kind and curious — not a person who was all about herself, but wanted to know about you. That stuck with me.

      Temming: You spend much of the book describing evidence for dark matter besides Rubin’s research. Why?

      Yeager: I wanted to make sure I didn’t portray Rubin as this lone person who discovered dark matter, because there were a lot of different moving pieces in astronomy and physics that came together in the ’70s and early ’80s for the scientific community to say, “OK, we really have to take dark matter seriously.”

      Temming: What made Rubin’s work a linchpin for confirming dark matter?

      Yeager: She really went after nailing down that flat rotation curve in all types of galaxies. Mainly because she did get a lot of pushback, continually, that said, “Oh, that’s just a special case in that galaxy, or that’s just for those types of galaxies.” She studied hundreds of galaxies to double-check that, yes, in fact, the rotation curves are flat. People saying, “We don’t believe you,” didn’t ever really knock her down. She just came back swinging harder.

      It helped that she did the work in visible wavelengths of light. There had been a lot of radio astronomy data to suggest flat rotation curves, but because radio astronomy was very new, it was really only once you saw it with the eye that the astronomy community was convinced.

      Temming: Do you have a favorite anecdote about Rubin?

      Yeager: The one that comes to mind is how much she loved flowers. She told me about how on drives from Lowell Observatory to Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, she and her colleague Kent Ford would always stop and buy wildflowers. The fact that picking these wildflowers stuck with her, I thought, was just representative of who she was. Her favorite moments weren’t necessarily these big discoveries she’d made, but stopping to pick some flowers and enjoy their beauty.

      Author Ashley Yeager (left) interviewed Vera Rubin (right) in 2007 as part of an oral history project with Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum.Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (NASM 9A16674)

      Temming: Did you learn anything in your research that surprised you?

      Yeager: I didn’t initially grasp how many different types of projects she had. She did a lot with looking for larger-scale structure [in the universe] and looking at the Hubble constant [which describes how fast the universe is expanding] (SN: 4/21/21). She had a very diverse set of questions that she wanted to answer, well into her 70s.

      Temming: I was surprised by her decision to get out of the rat-race of hunting for quasars, when that area of research heated up in the 1960s.

      Yeager: She very much didn’t like to be in pressure situations where she could be wrong. She liked to go and collect so much data that no one could [dispute it]. With quasar research, it was just too fast, and she wanted to be methodical about it.

      Temming: Why is Rubin’s story important to tell now?

      Yeager: Unfortunately for women and minorities in science, it’s still very relevant, in that there are a lot of challenges to pursuing a career in STEM. Her story demonstrates that you have to surround yourself with people who are willing to help you and get away from the people who want to keep you down. Plus her story is also very encouraging: Your curiosity can keep you going and can fuel something way bigger than yourself.

      Temming: How did she advocate for women in astronomy?

      Yeager: She was very outspoken about it. At National Academy of Sciences meetings, the organizers always dreaded her standing up, because she would say, “What are we doing about women in science? We’re not doing enough.” She was constantly pushing for women to be recognized with awards. She kept tabs on the number of women who had earned Ph.D.s and who had gotten staff positions — and their salaries. She was very data-driven. She’d cull that information and use it to advocate for better representation and recognition of women in astronomy.

      Temming: How would you describe Rubin to someone who hasn’t met her?

      Yeager: She was one of the most persistent, gracious and nurturing people that I’ve ever met. You could strip away all that she did in astronomy and she would still be this incredible figure — the way she carried herself, the way she treated people. Just a beautiful human being.

      Buy Bright Galaxies, Dark Matter, and Beyond from Bookshop.org. Science News is a Bookshop.org affiliate and will earn a commission on purchases made from links in this article. More

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      Jupiter’s intense auroras superheat its upper atmosphere

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      Jupiter’s upper atmosphere is hundreds of degrees warmer than expected. After a decades-long search, scientists may have pinned down a likely source of that anomalous heat. The culprit, a new study suggests, is the planet’s intense auroras, Jupiter’s version of Earth’s northern and southern lights (SN: 6/8/21).

      The temperature of the upper atmosphere of Jupiter, which orbits an average distance of 778 million kilometers from the sun, should be about –73° Celsius, says James O’Donoghue, a planetary scientist at the JAXA Institute of Space and Astronautical Science in Sagamihara, Japan. That’s largely due to the feeble illumination of the sun there, which amounts to less than 4 percent of the energy per square meter that hits Earth’s atmosphere. Instead, the region several hundred kilometers above the planet’s cloud tops has an average temperature of about 426° C.

      Scientists first noticed this mismatch more than 40 years ago. Since then, researchers have come up with several ideas about where the upper atmosphere’s thermal boost might originate, including pressure waves or gravity waves created by turbulence lower in the atmosphere. But observations by O’Donoghue and his colleagues now provide convincing evidence that the auroras pump heat throughout the planet’s upper atmosphere.

      The researchers used the 10-meter Keck II telescope atop Hawaii’s dormant Mauna Kea volcano to observe Jupiter on one night each in 2016 and 2017. Specifically, the team looked for infrared emissions that betray the presence of positively charged hydrogen molecules (H3+). Those molecules are created when charged particles in the solar wind, among other sources, slam into the planet’s atmosphere at hundreds or thousands of kilometers per second, painting polar auroras.

      Measuring the intensities of these molecules’ infrared emissions let the team pin down how hot it gets high above the cloud tops. In those polar regions, temperatures in the upper atmosphere likely top out at about 725° C, the team reports in the Aug. 5 Nature. But at equatorial latitudes, the team’s heat map showed that the temperature falls to about 325° C. That pattern of a gradual drop-off in temperature toward lower latitudes bolsters the notion that Jupiter’s auroras are the source of anomalous heat in the upper atmosphere and that winds disperse that warmth from the polar regions.

      One of the nights the team observed Jupiter — January 25, 2017 — was particularly well-timed because Jupiter was experiencing a strong solar flare at the time. Besides an intense aurora, data revealed a broad swath of warmer-than-normal gases at mid-latitudes, which the researchers interpret as a wave of warmth rolling southward. “It was pure luck that we captured this potential heat-shedding event,” says O’Donoghue.

      The team’s observations “are close to a ‘smoking gun’ for the redistribution of auroral energy,” says Tommi Koskinen, a planetary scientist at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The next challenge, he notes, is to understand the underlying mechanisms of heat production and heat transfer and to then incorporate them into researchers’ simulations of Jupiter’s atmospheric circulation. More

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      Measuring a black hole’s mass isn’t easy. A new technique could change that

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      An actively feeding black hole surrounds itself with a disk of hot gas and dust that flickers like a campfire. Astronomers have now found that monitoring changes in those flickers can reveal something that is notoriously hard to measure: the behemoth’s heft.

      “It’s a new way to weigh black holes,” says astronomer Colin Burke of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. What’s more, the method could be used on any astrophysical object with an accretion disk, and may even help find elusive midsize black holes, researchers report in the Aug. 13 Science.

      It’s not easy to measure a black hole’s mass. For one thing, the dark behemoths are notoriously difficult to see. But sometimes black holes reveal themselves when they eat. As gas and dust falls into a black hole, the material organizes into a disk that is heated to white-hot temperatures and can, in some cases, outshine all the stars in the galaxy combined.

      Measuring the black hole’s diameter can reveal its mass using Einstein’s general theory of relativity. But only the globe-spanning Event Horizon Telescope has made this sort of measurement, and for only one black hole so far (SN: 4/22/19). Other black holes have been weighed via observations of their influence on the material around them, but that takes a lot of data and doesn’t work for every supermassive black hole.

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      So, looking for another way, Burke and colleagues turned to accretion disks. Astronomers aren’t sure how black holes’ disks flicker, but it seems like small changes in light combine to brighten or dim the entire disk over a given span of time. Previous research had hinted that the time it takes a disk to fade, brighten and fade again is related to the mass of its central black hole. But those claims were controversial, and didn’t cover the full range of black hole masses, Burke says.

      So he and colleagues assembled observations of 67 actively feeding black holes with known masses. The behemoths spanned sizes from 10,000 to 10 billion solar masses. For the smallest of these black holes, the flickers changed on timescales of hours to weeks. Supermassive black holes with masses between 100 million and 10 billion solar masses flickered more slowly, every few hundred days.

      “That gives us a hint that, okay, if this relation holds for small supermassive black holes and big ones, maybe it’s sort of a universal feature,” Burke says.

      Out of curiosity, the team also looked at white dwarfs, the compact corpses of stars like the sun, which are some of the smallest objects to sport consistent accretion disks. Those white dwarfs followed the same relationship between flicker speed and mass.

      The analyzed black holes didn’t cover the entire possible range of masses. Known black holes that are from about 100 to 100,000 times the mass of the sun are rare. There are several potential candidates, but only one has been confirmed (SN: 9/2/20). In the future, the relationship between disk flickers and black hole mass could tell astronomers exactly what kind of disk flickers to look for to help bring these midsize beasts out of hiding, if they’re there to be found, Burke says.

      Astrophysicist Vivienne Baldassare of Washington State University in Pullman studies black holes in dwarf galaxies, which may preserve some of the properties of ancient black holes that formed in the early universe. One of the biggest challenges in her work is measuring black hole masses. The study’s “super exciting results … will have a large impact for my research, and I expect many others as well,” she says.

      The method offers a simpler way to weigh black holes than any previous technique, Burke says — but not necessarily a faster one. More massive black holes, for example, would need hundreds of days, or possibly years, of observations to reveal their masses.

      Upcoming observatories are already planning to take that kind of data. The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is expected to start observing the entire sky every night beginning in 2022 or 2023 (SN: 1/10/20). Once the telescope has been running long enough, the observations needed to weigh black holes “will fall out for free” from the Rubin Observatory data, Burke says. “We’re already building it. We may as well do this.” More

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      A bounty of potential gravitational wave events hints at exciting possibilities

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      A new crew of potential ripples in spacetime has just debuted — emphasis on the word “potential.”

      By loosening the criteria for what qualifies as evidence for gravitational waves, physicists identified 1,201 possible tremors. Most are probably fakes, spurious jitters in the data that can mimic the cosmic vibrations, the team reports August 2 at arXiv.org. But by allowing in more false alarms, the new tally may also include some weak but genuine signals that would otherwise be missed, potentially revealing exciting new information about the sources of gravitational waves.

      Scientists can now look for signs that may corroborate some of the uncertain detections, such as flashes of light in the sky that flared from the cosmic smashups that set off the ripples. Gravitational waves are typically spawned by collisions of dense, massive objects, such as black holes or neutron stars, the remnants of dead stars (SN: 1/21/21).

      To come up with the new census, physicists reanalyzed six months of data from the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, or LIGO, and Virgo gravitational wave observatories. Scientists had already identified 39 of the events as likely gravitational waves in earlier analyses.

      Eight events that hadn’t been previously identified stand a solid chance of being legitimate — with greater than a 50 percent probability of coming from an actual collision.

      The physicists analyzed the data from those eight events to see how they might have occurred. In one, two black holes may have slammed together, melding into a whopper black hole with about 180 times the mass of the sun, which would make it the biggest black hole merger seen yet (SN: 9/2/20). Another event could be a rare sighting of a black hole swallowing a neutron star (SN: 6/29/21). More

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      Black holes born with magnetic fields quickly shed them

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      Like a shaggy dog in springtime, some black holes have to shed. New computer simulations reveal how black holes might discard their magnetic fields.

      Unlike dogs with their varied fur coats, isolated black holes are mostly identical. They are characterized by only their mass, spin and electric charge. According to a rule known as the no-hair theorem, any other distinguishing characteristics, or “hair,” are quickly cast off. That includes magnetic fields.

      The rule applies to black holes in a vacuum, where magnetic fields can simply slip away. But, says astrophysicist Ashley Bransgrove of Columbia University, “what we were thinking about is what happens in a more realistic scenario.” A magnetized black hole would typically be surrounded by electrically charged matter called plasma, and scientists didn’t know how — or even if — such black holes would undergo hair loss.

      Black holes can be born with magnetic fields or gain them later, for example by swallowing a neutron star, a highly magnetic dead star (SN: 6/29/21). When Bransgrove and colleagues simulated the plasma surrounding a magnetized black hole, they found that a process called magnetic reconnection allows the magnetic field to escape the black hole. The magnetic field lines that map out the field’s direction break apart and reconnect. Loops of magnetic field form around blobs of plasma, some of which blast outward, while others fall into the black hole. That process eliminates the black hole’s magnetic field, the researchers report in the July 30 Physical Review Letters.

      Magnetic reconnection in balding black holes could spew X-rays that astronomers could detect. So scientists may one day glimpse a black hole losing its hair. More

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      A super-short gamma-ray burst defies astronomers’ expectations

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      A surprisingly short gamma-ray burst has astronomers rethinking what triggers these celestial cataclysms.

      The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope detected a single-second-long blast of gamma rays, dubbed GRB 200826A, in August 2020. Such fleeting gamma-ray bursts, or GRBs, are usually thought to originate from neutron star smashups (SN: 10/16/17). But a closer look at the burst revealed that it came from the implosion of a massive star’s core.

      In this scenario, the core of a star collapses into a compact object, such as a black hole, that powers high-speed particle jets. Those jets punch through the rest of the star and radiate powerful gamma rays before the outer layers of the star explode in a supernova (SN: 5/8/19). That process is typically thought to produce longer GRBs, lasting more than two seconds.

      Discovering such a brief gamma-ray burst from a stellar explosion suggests that some bursts previously classified as stellar mergers may actually be from the deaths of massive stars, researchers report online July 26 in two studies in Nature Astronomy.

      The first clues about GRB 200826A’s origin came from the burst itself. The wavelengths of light and amount of energy released in the burst were more similar to collapse-related GRBs than collision-produced bursts, Bing Zhang, an astrophysicist at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and colleagues report. Plus, the burst hailed from the middle of a star-forming galaxy, where astronomers expect to find collapsing massive stars, but not neutron star mergers — which are generally found on the fringes of tranquil galaxies.

      Another group, led by astronomer Tomás Ahumada-Mena of the University of Maryland in College Park, searched for the supernova that’s expected to follow a GRB produced by a collapsing star. Using the Gemini North Telescope in Hawaii to observe GRB 200826A’s host galaxy, the team was able to pick out the telltale infrared light of the supernova. The burst may have been so brief because its jets had just barely punched through the surface of the star before they petered out and the star blew up, Ahumada-Mena says. More

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      The tiny dot in this image may be the first look at exomoons in the making

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      New telescope images may provide the first view of moons forming outside the solar system.

      The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile glimpsed a dusty disk of potentially moon-forming material around a baby exoplanet about 370 light-years from Earth. The Jupiter-like world is surrounded by enough material to make up to 2.5 Earth moons, researchers report online July 22 in the Astrophysical Journal Letters. Observations of this system could offer new insight into how planets and moons are born around young stars.

      ALMA observed two planets, dubbed PDS 70b and 70c, circling the star PDS 70 in July 2019. Unlike most other known exoplanets, these two Jupiter-like worlds are still forming — gobbling up material from the disk of gas and dust swirling around their star (SN: 7/2/18). During this formation process, planets are expected to wrap themselves in their own debris disks, which control how planets pack on material and form moons.

      Around PDS 70c, ALMA spotted a disk of dust about as wide as Earth’s orbit around the sun. With previously reported exomoon sightings still controversial, the new observations offer some of the best evidence yet that planets orbiting other stars have moons (SN: 4/30/19).

      Unlike PDS 70c, 70b does not appear to have a moon-forming disk. That may be because it has a narrower orbit than PDS 70c, which is nearly as far from its star as Pluto is from the sun. That puts PDS 70c closer to an outer disk of debris surrounding the star.

      Just inside a ring of debris surrounding a young star is the planet PDS 70c, which is surrounded by its own disk of possible moon-forming material (bright dot at center).ALMA/ESO, NAOJ and NRAO, M. Benisty et al

      “C is getting all the material from the outer disk, and b is getting starved,” says study coauthor Jaehan Bae, an astrophysicist at the Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington, D.C.

      “In the past, b must have gotten some material in its [disk], and it could have already formed moons,” Bae says. But to make the new images, ALMA observed wavelengths of light emitted by sand-sized dust grains, not large objects, so those moons would not be visible. More

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      How do scientists calculate the age of a star?

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      We know quite a lot about stars. After centuries of pointing telescopes at the night sky, astronomers and amateurs alike can figure out key attributes of any star, like its mass or its composition.

      To calculate a star’s mass, just look it its orbital period and do a bit of algebra. To determine what it’s made of, look to the spectrum of light the star emits. But the one variable scientists haven’t quite cracked yet is time.

      “The sun is the only star we know the age of,” says astronomer David Soderblom of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore. “Everything else is bootstrapped up from there.”

      Even well-studied stars surprise scientists every now and then. In 2019 when the red supergiant star Betelgeuse dimmed, astronomers weren’t sure if it was just going through a phase or if a supernova explosion was imminent. (Turns out it was just a phase.) The sun also shook things up when scientists noticed that it wasn’t behaving like other middle-aged stars. It’s not as magnetically active compared with other stars of the same age and mass. That suggests that astronomers might not fully understand the timeline of middle age.

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      Calculations based on physics and indirect measurements of a star’s age can give astronomers ballpark estimates. And some methods work better for different types of stars. Here are three ways astronomers calculate the age of a star.

      Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams

      Scientists do have a pretty good handle on how stars are born, how they live and how they die. For instance, stars burn through their hydrogen fuel, puff up and eventually expel their gases into space, whether with a bang or a whimper. But when exactly each stage of a star’s life cycle happens is where things get complicated. Depending on their mass, certain stars hit those points after a different number of years. More massive stars die young, while less massive stars can burn for billions of years.

      At the turn of the 20th century, two astronomers — Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell — independently came up with the idea to plot stars’ temperature against their brightness. The patterns on these Hertzsprung-Russell, or H-R, diagrams corresponded to where different stars were in that life cycle. Today, scientists use these patterns to determine the age of star clusters, whose stars are thought to have all formed at the same time.

      The caveat is that, unless you do a lot of math and modeling, this method can be used only for stars in clusters, or by comparing a single star’s color and brightness with theoretical H-R diagrams. “It’s not very precise,” says astronomer Travis Metcalfe of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colo. “Nevertheless, it’s the best thing we’ve got.”

      [embedded content]
      Measuring a star’s age isn’t as easy as you’d think. Here’s how scientists get their ballpark estimates.

      Rotation rate

      By the 1970s, astrophysicists had noticed a trend: Stars in younger clusters spin faster than stars in older clusters. In 1972, astronomer Andrew Skumanich used a star’s rotation rate and surface activity to propose a simple equation to estimate a star’s age: Rotation rate = (Age) -½.

      This was the go-to method for individual stars for decades, but new data have poked holes in its utility. It turns out that some stars don’t slow down when they hit a certain age. Instead they keep the same rotation speed for the rest of their lives.

      “Rotation is the best thing to use for stars younger than the sun,” Metcalfe says. For stars older than the sun, other methods are better.

      Stellar seismology

      The new data that confirmed rotation rate wasn’t the best way to estimate an individual star’s age came from an unlikely source: the exoplanet-hunting Kepler space telescope. Not just a boon for exoplanet research, Kepler pushed stellar seismology to the forefront by simply staring at the same stars for a really long time.

      Watching a star flicker can give clues to its age. Scientists look at changes in a star’s brightness as an indicator of what’s happening beneath the surface and, through modeling, roughly calculate the star’s age. To do this, one needs a really big dataset on the star’s brightness — which the Kepler telescope could provide.

      “Everybody thinks it was all about finding planets, which was true,” Soderblom says. “But I like to say that the Kepler mission was a stealth stellar physics mission.”

      This approach helped reveal the sun’s magnetic midlife crisis and recently provided some clues about the evolution of the Milky Way. Around 10 billion years ago, our galaxy collided with a dwarf galaxy. Scientists have found that stars left behind by that dwarf galaxy are younger or about the same age as stars original to the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way may have evolved more quickly than previously thought.

      As space telescopes like NASA’s TESS and the European Space Agency’s CHEOPS survey new patches of sky, astrophysicists will be able to learn more about the stellar life cycle and come up with new estimates for more stars.

      Aside from curiosity about the stars in our own backyard, star ages have implications beyond our solar system, from planet formation to galaxy evolution — and even the search for extraterrestrial life.

      “One of these days — it’ll probably be a while — somebody’s going to claim they see signs of life on a planet around another star. The first question people will ask is, ‘How old is that star?’” Soderblom says. “That’s going to be a tough question to answer.” More