Humans

Most of us instinctively think that our sense of self is located in our head – but experiments show that our brains aren’t working alone in creating our sense of self

Humans 9 December 2020
By Alison George

Martin Parr/Magnum Photos

Where is your self?
FOR the Ancient Egyptians, it was the heart. For philosopher René Descartes, it was somewhere entirely separate from the body. According to the Buddhist concept of anatta, it isn’t anywhere, because the thing concerned doesn’t exist.
But what does modern science say about where your self – your “soul”, if you like – resides?
At first pass, that might not seem a particularly scientific question. Regardless, most of us have an intuitive answer. When, in as-yet unpublished work, Christina Starmans and her colleagues showed people from the US and India pictures of flies circling around a person, and asked which flies they thought were closest, the results were striking: regardless of cultural background, most people pointed to flies near a person’s eyes. “This suggests there is a universal sense of the self being located in the head, near the eyes,” says Starmans, a psychologist at the University of Toronto in Canada.
Subjectively at least, the eyes being windows to the soul checks out. “The sense of where in our bodies we are located is informed by our dominant experience of the world,” says Starmans. “Almost all of our input from the world comes in through our head.”
What our heads do with these inputs is certainly incredible, and key to our feeling that we are coherent beings. Our brains take a hotchpotch of electrical messages from our sense organs – eyes, ears, nose, skin – and combine them with memories to create a vivid, unified sense of conscious experience that is continuous in time.
How exactly this happens is still something of a mystery. But … More

We have a strong sense of continuous, coherent existence – yet from the cells that make our bodies to our defining character traits, we are in a constant state of change

Humans 9 December 2020
By Tiffany O’Callaghan
Each of us shows many differing faces over time
Getty Images

Are you always the same person?
MY MOM sometimes jokes that it is fortunate she didn’t meet my dad when he was in college, because she wouldn’t have liked him. She was (and is) a self-described goody two shoes. Dad not so much, but presumably even less so when keg parties were involved.
We know that we change over time. Our bodies grow, then age; we mature and our views shift; our memories sharpen and fade. Yet for most of us, our sense of self is seamless and continuous. You are the same old you, right?
Let’s start with the physical. Some of our cells, notably neurons in the brain, are with us from before birth, and can live more than 100 years. “Most of the nerve cells in the brain are actually as old as we are,” says molecular biologist Jonas Frisén at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden.
But most of our cells aren’t. Some, including certain kinds of white blood cell, live for only days. How quickly our skin cells are replenished changes as we age, but in general it takes about a month. The notion that the liver regenerates every 40 days or so is a myth: our liver cells live 200 to 300 days.
On the level of atoms and molecules, meanwhile, we are exchanging material with our environment with abandon. Think of your body like a grassy field, says Frisén. “It’s the same lawn from year to year, but each strand of grass is completely different.”
But what about less tangible … More

By Colin Barras
Living in darkness, or even hibernating, could have left ancient humans with bone lesions
gorodenkoff/Getty Images

Some of the ancient humans living in Europe half a million years ago had a remarkable strategy for dealing with winter: they hibernated. At least, that is the claim being made by two researchers. Others dispute the evidence – but ongoing research suggests that it might be possible to induce a hibernation-like state in modern humans.
Sima de los Huesos – the “pit of bones” – lies in northern Spain and is one of the world’s most important sites for studying human evolution. Excavations at … More

By Luke Taylor
The rock art may be 12,500 years old
Courtesy of Jose Iriarte

An extensive collection of ancient rock art and archaeological remains found deep in the Colombian Amazon offers a rare glimpse into the lives of the earliest people to inhabit the region.
The images and remains suggest that people lived in the northern Amazon at the same time as now-extinct mega-mammals. They also show that the ancient humans had a varied diet, indicating that they adapted quickly to their new environment.
The as-yet unnamed site in the Serranía La Lindosa, a large, rocky outcrop in southern Colombia, was found by an international team of researchers investigating the Guaviare region. It is the earliest secure evidence of people in the Colombian Amazon, they say.

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A wealth of Indigenous artwork has been documented across Guaviare, particularly in Chiribiquete National Park. The artwork documented at La Lindosa is new to science, and appears to be unknown even to local people, according to the researchers. It is remarkable in both its detail and its scale, the team says. The collage of images includes geometric patterns, handprints, people and animals. It stretches across approximately 5 kilometres of rock face, and could take decades to fully study.

The archaeological team – co-led by Francisco Javier Aceituno at the University of Antioquia, Colombia – was thrilled to find depictions of what appear to be now-extinct megafauna alongside more familiar fish, birds and lizards still alive today.
“We knew that megafauna was in the region and went extinct around 10 to 12,000 years before the present,” says José Iriarte at the University of Exeter, UK, and a member of the research team. If people were depicting them in their art, the humans must have been present in the region at least 12,500 years ago, he argues.
Iriarte says it is “quite clear” that a palaeolama, an extinct stumpy-legged, long-necked camelid, is depicted. Other drawings have been tentatively identified as giant sloths due to their unique proportions, and mastodons – ancient relatives of elephants – due to their trunks.
“The realism for South American standards is really impressive,” says Iriarte.

Others are less sure.
“The horses are clear,” says Hans ter Steege, an expert on Amazonian plant diversity at the Naturalis Biodiversity Center in the Netherlands, who wasn’t involved in the research. “But the palaeolama could be a poor representation of a deer to me.”
Further study will be made of the artwork to gain more certainty of the depictions and their age, say the researchers.

However, additional archaeological evidence makes clear that humans were present in the region 12,500 years ago. The researchers have excavated an area at the base of one section of rock face and uncovered evidence of ancient human activity in the form of processed animal bones. Some of the remains occur in layers of dirt containing charred palms that radiocarbon dating shows are about 12,500 years old. The 12,500-year-old layers also contain fragments of ochre similar to that used to draw the rock art.
Establishing the presence of humans during this period — in which megafauna roamed the region and the climate was warming — is significant, says Aceituno.
“The most important thing has been to obtain good radiocarbon dates to specify the early peopling of the area,” he says.
It shows that humans shared the region with immense beasts, but also helps paint a picture of how their world would have looked.
No megafauna remains have been found at the site, perhaps suggesting that humans didn’t hunt the animals or they were processed elsewhere. There were no remains of medium-sized animals like monkeys either, a staple food for Indigenous groups inhabiting the region today. “It could mean they had not developed blowgun technology at this stage to hunt prey in the treetops,” says Iriarte.
Around half the remains were fish — including piranhas — but diets were broad. Reptiles like iguanas and snakes were consumed as well as rodents like paca and capybara.
There is also evidence that various fruits were eaten. The diversity of animals and plants consumed suggests humans adapted quickly to the Amazon, says ter Steege.
Journal reference: Quaternary International, DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.026
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By Donna Lu
Archaeologists have built replica Stone Age rafts to attempt the crossing to the Ryukyu islands
Yosuke Kaifu

Stone Age humans crossed the sea from Taiwan to the Ryukyu islands of south-west Japan tens of thousands of years ago – and it looks like they did so deliberately, even though the islands are too far away to be reliably visible from Taiwan.
Archaeological sites on several of the Ryukyu islands suggest humans had reached the islands by about 30,000 to 35,000 years ago. Yosuke Kaifu at the University of Tokyo and his colleagues suspect the ancient people did so by travelling north-east from Taiwan – a journey that involved ocean crossings of tens to hundreds of kilometres to hop from island to island. The researchers have even repeated some of these ocean crossings themselves using bamboo rafts of the kind that Stone Age humans might have built.
But it hadn’t been clear whether the crossing occurred deliberately or by accident. The Kuroshio current, which flows from Luzon in the Philippines past Taiwan and Japan, is one of the strongest ocean currents in the world, and in some parts is 100 kilometres wide.

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“The speed of the Kuroshio in the east of Taiwan is normally 1 to 2 metres per second,” says Kaifu.

To find out if people could have arrived at the islands by drifting on this current, the researchers looked at existing data from 138 satellite-tracked buoys, released into the world’s oceans as part of the Global Drifter Program. The 138 buoys all drifted past Taiwan or Luzon between 1989 and 2017.
Kaifu and his colleagues found that only four buoys travelled to within 20 kilometres of any of the Ryukyu islands. In all four cases this occurred as a result of adverse weather conditions, including a typhoon.
The finding suggests that the Kuroshio current directs drifters away from, rather than towards, the Ryukyu islands. Because the flow of the current is thought to have stayed the same for the past 100,000 years, it seems likely that Stone Age people reached the Ryukyu islands through deliberate voyaging rather than accidental drifting.
“Now we can tell with confidence that Palaeolithic people set sail deliberately even to a remote invisible island,” says Kaifu.

“Most people probably think that Palaeolithic people were just primitive and conservative, but I now see something different from that general image,” he says.
Journal reference: Scientific Reports, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76831-7
More on these topics: More

From The End of Everything by Katie Mack and How to Argue with a Racist by Adam Rutherford to Martha Wells’s Murderbot sc-ifi series, New Scientist’s 2020 gift guide has a book for everyone

Humans 2 December 2020
By New Scientist

Getty Images/Westend61

The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking)
by Katie Mack
For a bit of seasonal giving, why not look to the end of the universe? Thankfully, The End of Everything (Scribner) by Katie Mack is no apocalyptic vision but an engrossing and often funny tour of all the ways our cosmos might come to a close. Mack’s enjoyment of physics stands out – and is contagious. She describes primordial black holes as “awfully cute in a terrifying theoretical kind of way”, antimatter as “matter’s annihilation-happy evil twin” and the universe as “frickin’ weird”. All true, and Mack’s explanations … More

In Watch Dogs: Legion you can play as or team up with any of the characters of the game, and strolling around its digital version of London is a real treat, says Jacob Aron

Humans 2 December 2020
By Jacob Aron
Key London landmarks like The Shard appear in Watch Dogs: Legion
Ubisoft

Watch Dogs: LegionUbisoftPC, PlayStation 4 and 5, Xbox One, Series X and S
NEW SCIENTIST closed its offices on 13 March, a week or so before the UK went into national lockdown. Since then, I have spent most of this year in a small radius around my north London flat and have been into the city centre only a handful of times.
As a native Londoner, it is strange to be so cut off from the city, which is why the opening moments of Watch … More

Lockdown restrictions in winter might seem something to dread, but we can combat this by embracing the mindset of people used to long, dark winters, says health psychologist Kari Leibowitz

Health 2 December 2020
By Kari Leibowitz

Rocio Montoya

WHEN health psychologist Kari Leibowitz moved from the US to the Norwegian town of Tromsø, more than 300 kilometres north of the Arctic circle, her research became personal. Inspired by recent findings on the ways in which people’s attitudes influence their mental and physical health, she wondered whether this might be the secret to coping with the long, dark Nordic winter. Her research revealed that many Norwegians have a winter mindset that allows them to thrive in conditions she was dreading. Now back in the US at Stanford University, Leibowitz believes her findings hold lessons for us all, especially for people living in the northern hemisphere who, as the nights draw in, face the dual challenges of winter and a stressful pandemic.
David Robson: What are “mindsets” and why are they so important?
Kari Leibowitz: I think of mindsets as a framework that helps us simplify information and make sense of the world. And we’re really just at the beginning of unpacking the ways that they can shape our health and well-being.
A lot of my research now is looking at how we can use mindsets in clinical practice. In one of the last studies that I did, we tested the effects of changing people’s mindsets – even without treatment. We brought our participants to the lab and we pricked them with histamine, triggering a minor allergic reaction that looks a bit like a mosquito bite. For some people, a doctor just examined their arm; for the others, the doctor examined their arm and said: “OK, from now on, the itch and irritation will feel better and your … More