Humans

Humans have an exceptional ability to run long distancessportpoint / Alamy Stock Photo
Before the advent of rifles, many cultures around the world hunted by pursuing prey over long distances. The energy gained by hunting in this way can far exceed the energy spent running, researchers have found, strengthening the argument that humans evolved for endurance running.
“I think our paper makes a very strong case for its importance in the past,” says Eugene Morin at Trent University in Canada. “Something that was thought to be marginal is now shown to be a common strategy worldwide.”

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Humans are exceptional endurance athletes, capable even of outrunning animals such as horses over distances of tens of kilometres. We have muscles built for stamina rather than power, and can keep cool by sweating a lot.
“These traits can only be explained in the context of running,” says Morin. “And there are not many reasons for humans to run for long distances other than hunting.”
It has been suggested that humans evolved to chase prey until the prey became too exhausted or overheated to run any further.
This idea, known as the endurance running hypothesis, has been hotly debated. One criticism is that running uses a lot of energy compared with walking. Another is that there are hardly any reports of modern humans using this hunting technique, suggesting it isn’t very efficient.
So, Morin and Bruce Winterhalder at the University of California, Davis, first estimated the energy expended to catch prey during persistence hunting versus the energy gained by catching prey of various sizes. For all but the smallest prey, running beats walking, according to their modelling.
That’s because running doesn’t use much more energy per kilometre but can greatly shorten the duration of a chase. Running 4 kilometres to catch an animal is more efficient than walking 8 kilometres, for instance.
In practice, walking wouldn’t usually work at all, says Morin, because endurance hunting often relies on pushing prey so hard that they overheat. “In most cases, this requires running,” he says.
Morin and Winterhalder also searched through accounts of various peoples written by anthropologists or missionaries from the 1500s onwards. They found around 400 descriptions of endurance hunting from all over the world, most from before 1850.
For example, an account of the Beothuk people of Newfoundland describes a lengthy pursuit of a stag. “The stag at first easily outstrips his pursuer, but after a run of four or five miles he stops and is by and bye [sic] overtaken; again he sets off, and again he is overtaken; again, and again, he is overtaken,” it says. Another account describes endurance hunting of herds of goats in Hawaii.
Running over snow
To Morin’s surprise, there were also accounts from colder regions, whereas previously known examples were from hot, arid regions. “We hunted the moose by running him down on snowshoes, and we could run all day, such as wolves,” an individual of the Gwichʼin people of Alaska and Canada is reported as saying.
The ideal conditions for this were thick snow with a crust strong enough to support a person wearing snowshoes but not strong enough to support heavier prey, says Morin.
He also points out that being able to run long distances used to be a highly valued ability, with numerous accounts of long-distance running races being part of the culture of peoples all around the world.
“It’s hard to argue with the results of their analysis, which clearly support other anatomical, physiological, archaeological and genetic evidence that humans evolved to run long distances to hunt,” says Daniel Lieberman at Harvard University, one of the proponents of the endurance running hypothesis. “Until the invention of modern technologies, persistence hunting by endurance running was widespread and very successful.”

“I think their review is super interesting,” says Cara Wall-Scheffler at Seattle Pacific University, who has been critical of the hypothesis. But she also points out that endurance running is mentioned in just 2 per cent of all the accounts of hunting the study looked at.
Henry Bunn at the University of Wisconsin-Madison says he remains sceptical of the hypothesis. Bunn thinks the method wouldn’t have worked in the bushlands where humans evolved, where hunters would quickly lose sight of fleeing prey. He also thinks endurance hunters would catch mostly young or old animals, but his team found teeth from butchered animals in their prime at one 2-million-year-old site.
On the basis of similar accounts of hunting, Wall-Scheffler recently argued that women took part in hunts much more often than thought. Morin says there are “copious” examples of women and girls taking part in running races, but he and his colleagues found that only 2 per cent of the accounts of endurance hunting they looked at describe women doing it.

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Coke Navarro
Ramesses III was one of Egypt’s great warrior pharaohs. A temple he built at Medinet Habu, near the Valley of the Kings, highlights why. On its walls, carvings tell the story of a coalition of fighters that swept across the eastern Mediterranean 3200 years ago, destroying cities, states and even whole empires. “No land could stand before their arms,” this account tells us. Eventually, the invaders – known today as the Sea Peoples – attacked Egypt. But Ramesses III succeeded where others had failed and crushed them.
In the 200 years since hieroglyphics were first deciphered, allowing us to read Ramesses III’s extraordinary story, evidence has come to light to corroborate it. We now know of numerous cities and palaces across the eastern Mediterranean that were destroyed around that time, with the Sea Peoples often implicated. So widespread was the devastation that, for one of the only times in history, several complex societies went into a steep decline from which they never recovered. Little wonder, then, that this so-called Late Bronze Age collapse has fascinated scholars for decades. So, too, has the identity of the mysterious sea-faring marauders.

Today, new genetic and archaeological evidence is giving us the firmest picture yet about what really went on at this dramatic time – and who, or what, was responsible. This shows that many of our ideas about the Sea Peoples and the collapse need completely rethinking. It also hints at a surprising idea: the end of civilisation might not always be as disastrous as we think.
Before the Sea Peoples arrived, life… More

A reconstruction of what Shanidar Z might have looked like, by Dutch twins Adrie and Alfons KennisBBC Studios/Jamie Simonds
MEET Shanidar Z, one of the most important Neanderthal discoveries in a generation. Her remains, thought to date back 75,000 years, were fully unearthed five years ago in a re-excavation of a legendary archaeological site, Shanidar cave, in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

She appears to have been deliberately interred along with a cluster of nine other Neanderthal men, women and children, whose skeletons were uncovered from the 1950s onwards and transformed our… More

An ornament found with the burned remains of royal people at a Maya templeDr Christina T. Halperin
Around 1200 years ago in a Maya city, the bones of several royal people were burned and unceremoniously discarded within the foundations of a new temple. These recently discovered remains may have marked a fiery political transition at a time of upheaval in the Maya world.
“When we first started excavating, we had no idea what this was,” says Christina Halperin at the University of Montreal. She and her colleagues made the discovery in 2022 at the archaeological site of Ucanal, located in present-day Guatemala.
The researchers found the deposit mixed in with rocks beneath a pyramid temple structure. The deposit contained the bones of at least four people, along with thousands of ornamental fragments and beads. The bones of two individuals and many of the ornaments showed evidence of burning at high temperature.Advertisement

It was clear this wasn’t a normal set of remains, says Halperin. But it was the nosepiece and obsidian eye discs of a burial mask that made clear they were royal individuals. She says sifting these clues from the ash “took forever”.
Despite their apparent highborn origins, the royals’ burned remains were not carefully buried but were instead “dumped there”, says Halperin. Radiocarbon dating of the bones and ash also indicated at least one individual had died up to a century before the remains were burned between AD 773 and 881. This suggests the bones were exhumed from a previous burial and then burned.
This timing corresponds with the rise of a new leader at Ucanal named Papmalil, an outsider who came to power amid a wider unravelling of Maya society. Within that context, the researchers think the deposit may be the product of what is known as the “fire-entering rite”, a Maya ritual that dramatically marked the destruction and end of the previous dynasty and the preeminence of the next. “This rite seems to be both an act of veneration, but also an act of destruction,” says Halperin.
Simon Martin at the University of Pennsylvania says the discovery provides vivid physical evidence for the theory that influence from outside cultures contributed to radical shifts in Maya society during this period. “These are the ancestors. These are the forebears,” he says. “To do this kind of thing is really tearing all of that up.”

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Researchers exploring the Umm Jirsan lava tube system in Saudi ArabiaPALAEODESERTS Project, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons​.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation within lava tubes for the first time, in the deserts of northern Saudi Arabia.
Lava tubes are caves that form during a volcanic eruption. The surface of a river of lava cools and solidifies, while hot molten rock continues to flow beneath it. Eventually, lava drains out of the tube, leaving behind a tunnel.

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Mathew Stewart at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, and his colleagues excavated a trench inside Umm Jirsan. At 1.5 kilometres in length, it is the biggest lava tube in Saudi Arabia. The researchers discovered animal bones, stone tools and pottery stretching back at least 7000 years and possibly as much as 10,000 years.
Stewart and his team have worked in the region for more than 15 years and have previously found numerous stone structures on the surface, confirming human habitation. However, the desert’s hot, arid climate has caused organic material to break down, making it difficult to date.
On the surface, the landscape is a “hot, dry and flat basalt desert”, says Stewart. “But when you are down in the lava tube, it’s much cooler. It’s very sheltered and it would have been a great place of refuge.”
“It’s transforming our understanding of the prehistory of the Arabian peninsula,” he says.
In parts of the underground network at Umm Jirsan, the researchers also found human bones, but these are thought to have been dragged in by hyenas.
In other lava tubes nearby, Stewart and his colleagues found rock art, including representations of domestic sheep and goats that would have been made by “cultural contemporaries” of the groups using the lava tubes as a refuge, he says.
Mike Morley at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, describes the lava tubes as being like “prefabricated activity spaces”.
“As a scientist who works primarily in caves, I am excited that we have another type of cave system being used by past human populations,” says Morley. “These finds represent a treasure trove of archaeological information for Arabia, a massive region that has only recently been investigated systematically for prehistoric archaeology.”
Lava tubes have also been suggested as possible places for humans to shelter on the moon and Mars.

Topics:archaeology/ancient humans More

Callao cave in the Philippines, where fossils from Homo luzonensis were foundFlorent Detroit/Callao Cave Archaeology Project
This is an extract from Our Human Story, our newsletter about the revolution in archaeology. Sign up to receive it in your inbox for free every month.
On 10 April 2019, our extended family got a bit bigger. A study in Nature reported the discovery of a new species of hominin called Homo luzonensis, from the Philippines. My colleague and fellow fossil enthusiast Colin Barras wrote about it for New Scientist.
It’s been five years since the announcement,… More

The excavation on Jiigurru that uncovered the pottery fragmentsSean Ulm
Indigenous Australians were manufacturing ceramics on a remote island, nearly 35 kilometres from the Queensland coast, more than 2000 years ago.
Pottery fragments found on Jiigurru (Lizard Island) in the Coral Sea are the earliest securely dated, locally produced pottery found in Australia that pre-dates the arrival of Europeans.

The discovery overturns the long-held belief that early Australians didn’t produce ceramics or have the maritime technology to undertake long… More

Prehistoric stone blades called Clovis points could have been used as weapons – or butchery toolsMetin I. Eren
Stone “Clovis points” used by prehistoric hunters to kill animals are also remarkably efficient at cutting meat off a large animal carcass – at least according to a modern bison butchering experiment. The finding complicates our knowledge of prehistoric hunting practices.
Archaeologists teamed up with modern hunters to compare how well replicas of two types of prehistoric stone tools could harvest meat from an animal carcass. They used a humanely killed bison bull weighing more than 450 kilograms.

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“This study actually showed that Clovis points were more effective than what was presumed to be the butchery tool: large stone flakes,” says Metin Eren at Kent State University in Ohio.
The five hunters, associated with the MeatEater outdoor lifestyle company, took just 3 hours and 10 minutes to completely butcher the bison carcass using both stone tools. But the Clovis points achieved a butchering efficiency of 0.38 kilograms of meat per minute, whereas the handheld stone flake tools processed 0.34 kilograms of meat per minute.
The Clovis points, which were mounted on wooden handles, had the added benefit of not injuring any users, whereas four out of five experts suffered minor cuts while using the handheld stone flakes.
But the Clovis points also required frequent resharpening during the butchering – and three of the 10 stone tools broke. “They demonstrate that the Clovis points work well, but they also demonstrate that the Clovis points break a lot,” says John Shea at Stony Brook University in New York, who was not part of the study. “And this is important because those things are not easy to make.”
Still, prehistoric peoples in the Americas may have adopted “such a labour-intensive and breakage-prone artefact” as part of social displays of group cooperation and stone working skills, says Shea.
Field processors butcher the bison with stone tools, while recorders take notes on how they use themSeth Morris
Another surprise came from how a Clovis point snapped and broke in a way that was nearly identical to how another Clovis point on an atlatl weapon broke when hurled at an elephant carcass in a previous study. “The possibility of snap breaks being mistaken for impact breaks is an eye-opener from the standpoint of interpreting how Clovis points might have been used,” says Vance Holliday at the University of Arizona, who did not participate in the study.
That means broken Clovis points discovered at prehistoric archaeological sites may not represent a “smoking gun for hunting”, as researchers previously believed. They could instead show how people “came across an already dead animal and scavenged it”, says Eren. In other words, deducing prehistoric hunting and scavenging behaviours just got a lot more complicated.

Topics:archaeology/ancient humans More