Humans

Sheep skulls modified by ancient Egyptians so that their horns grew upward instead of outwardB. De Cupere
Sheep with deformed horns are among the more mysterious animal remains discovered at an ancient Egyptian burial site dating back to around 3700 BC. They also represent the oldest physical evidence of humans modifying the horns of livestock.
“The sheep were deliberately made ‘special’ by castration,” says Wim Van Neer at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. “In addition, their horns were directed upward, and in one case, the horns were removed.” More

Bitter/iStock
There are few things more irritating in everyday life than getting something stuck between your teeth. Thankfully, we can reach for a toothpick – and it seems our ancient ancestors did the same. In fact, a fragment of a 1.2-million-year-old toothpick is perhaps the earliest direct evidence we have of hominins using plants as tools.
Our ancient ancestors probably made frequent use of implements made from plants. But finding evidence of this is extremely tough because botanical materials are so quick to rot away. This means the archaeological record of human tool use is deeply skewed towards the much hardier stone.
All this suggests that the origins of human technology could have been profoundly misunderstood.

Stone Age
The conventional view is it all started with the first stone tools and the dawn of the Stone Age over 3 million years ago. But what if, even before that, there was a botanical age, one based on woodworking and weaving of plant materials? For some researchers, it is absurd not to think that plants would be part of the story. “Perishable material culture is an essential element in our evolutionary past,” says Linda Hurcombe at the University of Exeter in the UK.
Now, we are finally getting a clearer view of this lost age. New techniques are making it possible to find traces of plant-based tools that would otherwise have been missed. And by studying the way modern primates use plants,… More

A cylinder seal and its design imprinted onto clayFranck Raux © 2001 GrandPalaisRmn (Musée du Louvre)
The world’s oldest known writing system may have had its origins in the imagery on decorated cylinders used to denote ownership. Some of the symbols on these cylinder seals correspond to those used in proto-cuneiform, a form of proto-writing used in Mesopotamia.
The finding indicates that the invention of writing in Mesopotamia was a decentralised process, in which many people across a wide area contributed to the set of symbols used.
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“There’s been this longstanding reconstruction of how writing appeared in Mesopotamia, which is arguably the earliest invention of writing in the world,” says Silvia Ferrara at the University of Bologna in Italy. “We’re retracing the trajectory in a way that’s more, I would say, colourful, less straitjacketed.”
The oldest known true writing system is cuneiform, invented around 3200 BC in Mesopotamia. It was preceded by a simpler system called proto-cuneiform, which was in use from 3350 to 3000 BC.
Proto-writing like proto-cuneiform is distinguished by a lack of grammatical rules, which means it cannot convey complex meanings, says Amy Richardson at the University of Reading in the UK, who wasn’t involved in the research. For instance, proto-cuneiform can be used to label something as “seven bushels of wheat”, but only true writing like cuneiform can say “seven bushels of wheat will be delivered to you”.
The origins of proto-cuneiform have often been traced to clay tokens. These came in a variety of shapes, such as discs and spheres, and were often engraved with patterns. The tokens could be pressed into wet clay, creating a symbol. Some of the symbols on the tokens are similar to those found in proto-cuneiform, as documented by Denise Schmandt-Besserat at the University of Texas at Austin in her two-volume book Before Writing in 1992.
There is some evidence for a role of tokens in the origin of proto-cuneiform, says Ferrara. “But you cannot explain all the signs.”
Ferrara and her colleagues Kathryn Kelley and Mattia Cartolano, also at the University of Bologna, have instead explored another source of symbols: cylinder seals. These cylindrical objects have patterns and images embossed on them, and leave a rectangular collection of symbols when rolled over sheets of wet clay. The symbols often referred to goods being transported, or to administrators involved in transactions, says Cartolano.
Two sides of a proto-cuneiform tabletCDLI
The team examined cylinder seals from a wide area of south-west Asia, including Mesopotamia, that dated to 4400 to 3400 BC. They found several symbols that corresponded to proto-cuneiform symbols.
“One of the clearest examples that we found is the use of the images of fringed cloth and vessel in a net,” says Cartolano. These have well-understood meanings: they refer to the transport of goods. And they are found both on cylinder seals and proto-cuneiform tablets.
The idea that the symbols on cylinder seals led to some of the symbols in proto-cuneiform was previously suggested by Holly Pittman at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia in a 1994 book chapter and developed in later publications. “I am gratified that, 30 years after I first proposed the fundamental role of seal imagery in the origins of proto-cuneiform script, that a new generation of scholars have taken up my idea and, with their expertise in cuneiform script, have put details to my argument,” says Pittman. She adds that in the 1990s her idea was dismissed “without serious consideration”.

“I find it to be very convincing,” says Richardson. “There does seem to be a really neat correlation in the particular examples that they’re illustrating in this article.” Her own research has found that cylinder seals were also used to record interactions between cities.
This doesn’t mean that tokens didn’t play a role. “I think there’s still some strong arguments to make that those tokens really are part of the foundation of abstraction,” says Richardson. In particular, they seem to have been important for the development of counting systems.
If proto-cuneiform really did arise in this hodge-podge way, drawn from tokens, cylinder seals and possibly other sources, it may tell us something about who was inventing it, says Ferrara. “There is evidence for making a claim that the invention of writing in Mesopotamia was, in fact, much more decentralised than we think,” she says. While powerful people in the major city of Uruk no doubt played a role, perhaps so did other administrators and tradespeople scattered over the region. “I think there’s evidence for having a more widespread… and more distributed prompt to writing,” she says.
Writing was first used for administration, not for storytelling. “Those first written records tend to be about trying to organise materials, goods, people, things,” says Richardson. “It’s very much about trying to find ways of creating a social system.”

Topics:archaeology More

James Fitzjames (Tobias Menzies, left) and John Franklin (Ciarán Hinds)James Blake/Falklands Maritime Heritage Trust
The TerrorAMCShowrunners: David Kajganich, Soo Hugh
In September, an awful truth was brought to light.
Ever since contact was lost with the Franklin expedition, an 1845 attempt by the British Royal Navy to find a path through the Arctic’s Northwest Passage, historians and scientists have tried to find out what went wrong. Investigations discovered hints of the horrors the sailors may have faced, including pack ice, hypothermia, lead poisoning and starvation. Eventually, the wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, the… More

Blades and other artefacts were traded across France during the Stone AgeJacques Descloitres/MODIS Land Rapid Response Team
Around 7000 years ago, long knives, bracelets and other stone goods fashioned by skilled Parisian crafters were reaching people hundreds of kilometres away, via complex trade networks that are now being mapped for the first time.
By combining archaeology with computer modelling, Solène Denis at the French National Centre for Scientific Research in Nanterre and Michael Kempf at the University of Basel in Switzerland have reconstructed the lengthy and winding paths taken to supply people from what is now Normandy… More

The complete skeletal remains of the “Well Man”Age Hojem, NTNU University Museum
A Norwegian saga written more than 800 years ago describes how a dead man was thrown into a castle well – and now, researchers believe they have identified the remains of this man.
The Sverris saga is an 182-verse Old Norse text that records the exploits of King Sverre Sigurdsson, who rose to power in the second half of the 12th century AD. One part says that a rival clan who attacked Sverresborg castle, near Trondheim, Norway, “took a dead man and cast him unto the well, and then filled it up with stones”.
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The well was inside the castle’s ramparts and was the community’s only permanent water source. It has been speculated that the man thrown into the well in the saga may have had a disease and putting him there was an early act of biological warfare.
In 1938, a medieval well in the ruins of Sverresborg castle was partly drained and a skeleton was found beneath rubble and boulders at the bottom. While it was widely believed that the skeleton, referred to as Well Man, was the remains of the individual mentioned in the saga, it wasn’t possible to confirm this at the time.
Now, Anna Petersén at the Norwegian Institute of Cultural Heritage Research in Oslo and her colleagues have used radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis of a tooth from the body to show that the date range the man was alive is consistent with the raid on the castle. While not definitive proof that the man was the one mentioned in the saga, the “circumstantial evidence is consistent with this conclusion”, says Perersén.
The Well Man skeleton was discovered in 1938Riksantikvaren (The Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage)
What is more, the team has been able to add to the story. “The research we have done has shown many details concerning both the event and the man that the saga episode doesn’t mention,” says Petersén.
For example, the DNA suggests he most likely had blue eyes and blond or light-brown hair. The researchers also believe his ancestors were from what is now Vest-Agder, the southernmost Norwegian county, based on comparisons with the DNA of modern and ancient Norwegians.
One thing they couldn’t find was any evidence that the man was thrown into the well because he had a disease or to render the drinking water unusable, but they also found no evidence against it, leaving the question unanswered.
Michael Martin at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim says the team’s approach of matching historical documents with DNA evidence could also be applied to construct family trees of long-dead royal families or to “physically describe and sketch out the life stories, such as movement between geographic regions, of the otherwise anonymous people whose remains are recovered from archaeological excavations”.
Researchers took DNA from one of the skeleton’s teethNorwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research (NIKU)
“This is, to my knowledge, the oldest case where genomic information has been recovered from a specific character, or even a specific person, mentioned in an ancient text,” says Martin.
He says by generating genomic information from ancient skeletal remains, we can provide new details about a person. “These details are not in the original text, thus the genetic data enriches the story and provides a way to separate fact from fiction,” says Martin.

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Archaeologists cleaning excess mud off the Bronze Age spadeWessex Archaeology
A wooden spade from the Bronze Age has been unearthed by archaeologists in the UK. It is incredibly rare to find wooden artefacts preserved from so long ago.
The spade offers a glimpse into life during a time when people were increasingly farming crops and living in settled communities.
“It’s quite tangible,” says Ed Treasure at Wessex Archaeology in Salisbury, UK. “It’s quite an immediate connection with the past.”Advertisement

The spade was found in wetlands near Poole Harbour on the south coast of England, where Wessex Archaeology has been digging for several years. The Moors at Arne Coastal Change Project is working to restore coastal wetlands in the area, and the archaeologists are excavating to ensure that informative artefacts are not inadvertently lost.
The researchers were digging in ring gullies, circular trenches that may have originally surrounded shelters. In one of the ring gullies, they spotted the handle of the spade. “There was almost a moment of disbelief,” says Treasure, who was not there personally. “It was quite immediately apparent that it was a piece of worked wood.” The spade had been carved from a single piece of oak.
The wet conditions meant the shovel was not exposed to oxygen, slowing the decay.
The team has radiocarbon dated the spade to 3400-3500 years ago, using a shard found alongside it. “A very small bit of the spade had become broken off in burial – we used that for dating,” says Treasure. Nearby pottery indicated a similar date. This places the spade’s origins in the Middle Bronze Age.
“It’s quite a big time of change in prehistoric Britain,” says Treasure. People were becoming less nomadic and spending much more time in settled communities, farming a range of cereals and other foods.
However, there is no sign of permanent year-round settlement at the site – unsurprisingly, because it was and is a wetland. “We’re very much thinking this is a seasonal use of this landscape,” says Treasure. People may have brought animals in to graze in the summer, cut peat for fuel or perhaps collected reeds for thatching.
Future studies will try to find out how the spade was made, and what it was used for. “It might have been used to cut peat on the site,” says Treasure. “It may also have been used to dig the ring gully in which it was found.”
Preserved spades from this period are rare. One of the only other examples is the Brynlow shovel, which was found in Cheshire in 1875, rediscovered in the 1950s in a school assembly hall by the fantasy writer Alan Garner and eventually radiocarbon dated to almost 4000 years ago.

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These ancient swords have been modified by forgersAlex Rodzinka
Imaging technology has revealed that ancient swords smuggled into the UK recently have been altered by modern-day forgers, who replaced many of the original iron blades with bronze ones. What’s more, many similar swords in museums worldwide may also be tainted by modern forgery.
The swords in question come from what is now Iran and date to an important moment in history: the end of the Bronze Age and beginning of the Iron Age. As the names suggest, this marked a technological shift as iron became the metal of… More