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      An Antarctic ice dome may offer the world’s clearest views of the night sky

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      An observatory in the heart of Antarctica could have the world’s clearest views of the night sky.
      If an optical telescope were built on a tower a few stories tall in the middle of the Antarctic Plateau, it could discern celestial features about half the size of those typically visible to other observatories, researchers report online July 29 in Nature. The observatory would achieve such sharp vision by peering above the atmosphere’s lowermost layer, known as the boundary layer, responsible for much of the undulating air that muddles telescope images (SN: 10/4/18).
      The thickness of Earth’s boundary layer varies across the globe. Near the equator, it can be hundreds of meters thick, limiting the vision of premier optical telescopes in places like the Canary Islands and Hawaii (SN: 10/14/19). Those telescopes usually cannot pick out celestial features smaller than 0.6 to 0.8 arc seconds — the apparent width of a human hair from about 20 meters away.
      “But in Antarctica, the boundary layer is really thin,” says Bin Ma, an astronomer at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, “so it is possible to put a telescope above.”
      Ma and colleagues took the first-ever measurements of nighttime atmospheric blur from the highest point in East Antarctica, called Dome A. From April to August 2019, instruments on an 8-meter-tall tower at China’s Kunlun research station tracked how Earth’s atmospheric turbulence distorted incoming starlight. A nearby weather station also monitored atmospheric conditions, such as temperature and wind speed. Using these observations, researchers characterized the boundary layer at Dome A and its effect on telescope observations.
      From April to August 2019, instruments atop an 8-meter-tall tower at China’s Kunlun research station in East Antarctica observed how the local atmosphere distorted light from celestial objects.Zhaohui Shang
      The boundary layer was, on average, about 14 meters thick; as a result, the light sensors at the top of the 8-meter tower were completely free of boundary layer blur only about one-third of the time. But when these instruments were above the layer, atmospheric interference was so low that a telescope could pick out details on the sky 0.31 arc seconds across, on average. The best recorded atmospheric conditions would let a telescope see features as small as 0.13 arc seconds.
      “One-tenth of an arc second is extremely good,” says Marc Sarazin, an applied physicist at the European Southern Observatory in Munich who was not involved in the work. This is “really something you rarely achieve in Chile or on Mauna Kea” in Hawaii.
      Researchers have found similarly excellent visibility above the boundary layer at another spot on the Antarctic Plateau, known as Dome C. But the boundary layer there is around 30 meters thick — making it more difficult to build an observatory above it. An optical telescope planned for construction on a 15-meter tower at Kunlun could take advantage of Dome A’s stellar views above the boundary layer, Ma says. Such crisp telescope images could help astronomers study a range of celestial objects, from solar system bodies to distant galaxies.

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      To rehearse Perseverance’s mission, scientists pretended to be a Mars rover

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      Megan Barrington watched the sun rise over the rocky outcrop. When light struck at exactly the right angle, she mounted a gizmo that looked like eye exam equipment on a tripod and aimed it at the spot. The goal: gather evidence that this windswept wilderness once teemed with life, and then beam the information to her colleagues back home.
      Soon, a version of that setup (minus Barrington) will be deployed on Mars. The state-of-the-art, zoomable, multispectral camera is part of the toolkit on NASA’s Perseverance rover (SN: 7/28/20). “That instrument is going to allow me to look at the mineralogy of Mars at Jezero crater,” the rover’s landing spot, says Barrington, a planetary scientist at Cornell University.
      The rover is scheduled to launch to Mars on July 30. A February role-playing exercise in the Nevada desert by Barrington and six colleagues was a kind of dress rehearsal for the rover’s various instruments. Another 150 team members around the world played the “Earth” team during those two weeks, sending commands from remote mission control and receiving data as it would appear coming from the real rover.
      “We’re not just simulating a Mars mission,” says engineer Raymond Francis of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., who organized and led the trip. “We’re simulating a specific Mars mission by presenting data … to the people who designed the instrument that will take that data. So the standard is high not to look like clowns.”

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      Perseverance has the most demanding and ambitious to-do list of any rover yet: seek signs of past Martian life, prepare the way for future human missions and collect at least 20 samples of Martian rock for eventual return to Earth. And that’s just in its first two years. For contrast, Curiosity rover has drilled a few dozen holes over eight years on Mars, and didn’t store any of those samples for later (SN: 7/7/18, p. 8).
      The dress rehearsal in the desert will help ensure that when Perseverance lands on the Red Planet in February 2021, its handlers on Earth can get straight to the science.
      “We don’t want to get there and learn how to explore Mars while on Mars,” Francis says. “We want [team members] to be ready when the rover hits the ground.”
      Water marks the spot
      The first order of business was to find the right spot for the dry run. “We had to pick a site that kind of looked like Mars,” Francis says. “The parking lot would not do.” The team wanted the site to look as Mars-like as possible, no factories, footprints or foliage to break the illusion.
      An ideal site would have geology that echoed Jezero crater, which is thought to be the remnants of an ancient lakebed and river delta (SN: 11/19/18). It also had to be within a few hours’ drive of JPL, and not totally off the grid — the rover team slept in hotels, ate dinner in restaurants and had reliable Wi-Fi to send data to the Earth team every night.
      The final requirement was that it be someplace the Earth team hadn’t seen before. If mission control members recognized the site, they could bias their findings with what they already knew.
      Engineer and team leader Raymond Francis gets up close with the rocks to make a measurement.JPL-Caltech/NASA
      “Most of the popular Mars analogs are already well known to the Mars community,” Francis says. “So we had to be a little sneaky.”
      Previous exercises, in November 2017 and February 2019, were run in the Mojave Desert in California. For 2020, the rover team headed to Walker Lake in western Nevada. The lake’s water has been receding for a thousand years, so there are spots near the ancient shoreline where the present-day lake is invisible.
      Walker Lake’s rocks preserved a cornucopia of biological signals for the ground team to discover: fossilized fish bones and shells of tiny shrimplike crustaceans called ostracods, which are not expected on Mars; and microbial fossils called stromatolites, which could plausibly be found in Jezero crater (SN: 10/17/18).
      Toolkit
      Francis and his team brought handheld versions of almost all the rover’s instruments to gather whatever data the Earth team requested. They had a drill, handheld spectrometers, lasers, a ground-penetrating radar that they transported in a jogging stroller, plus several elaborate camera setups to represent the rover’s navigation, hazard avoidance and zoomable 3-D science cameras.
      Perhaps the most important piece of equipment was the broom used for sweeping away footprints. It became a running joke, Francis says: “We’ve got all this equipment, a multibillion-dollar mission, and it’s all hinging on this 99-cent broom.”
      Almost everything went smoothly. But a few days into the mission, Barrington’s zoomable camera had “a major malfunction,” she says. She framed her shot, and…. nothing happened. The camera wasn’t getting any power, she realized. “I took it apart and rewired many pieces, to no avail,” she says.
      She and her teammates finally realized one of the power adapters had completely blown. She had to drive two hours to the nearest city to get a new one.
      Of course, driving into town to get a new part won’t be an option on Mars. The real camera, called Mastcam-Z, has been through weeks of rigorous testing and calibration, and is probably up to the task. But “we all go into missions knowing that sometimes irreversible mistakes occur,” Barrington admits. “All we can do at that point is use the instruments to the fullest capacity of which they are capable of operating.”
      Planetary scientist Megan Barrington adjusts her instrument, a multispectral, zoomable camera standing in for Perseverance’s Mastcam-Z.JPL-Caltech/NASA
      Signs of life, big and small
      There was one major giveaway that the team was actually on Earth. “This is very much middle-of-nowhere desert, which is good,” Francis says. But the rover site was mere steps from a U.S. Department of Defense munitions facility, one of the largest in the world.
      “It was really something to behold,” Barrington says. “They had hundreds of bunkers lined up in rows as far as you could see…. All of that was one very crooked metal fence away from us.”
      More than once, military police showed up to check the team’s credentials. “I had to approach them and say, hello, people with the guns, I need you to stop walking now,” Francis says. “We’re running a Mars rover simulation and we don’t want you to put your footprints in this sand.”
      Despite Francis and colleagues’ best efforts, the bunkers showed up in a few photos. The ground team gamely ignored them, apart from a few jokes about SpaceX founder Elon Musk building a Martian city.
      By the end of the two-week exercise, the remote science team reviewing the data had noticed the ostracods and fishbones, and started exploring the stromatolites. “They were doing a good job of finding the biomarkers,” Francis says, who now has hope that “if Mars is hiding stromatolites, maybe we’ll see them.”
      Coming home to quarantine
      The field trip ended on February 27, just as awareness of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 was rising in the United States. By March 15, JPL told employees to work from home. “We only had a few days together before we were all on remote work,” Francis says.
      The pandemic has already contributed to the delay of the launch of the European and Russian ExoMars rover, which was also supposed to launch in July (SN: 3/12/20).  If Perseverance misses the late July to early August launch window, the rover can’t head to Mars until 2022.
      If the pandemic is still an issue by the time the rover lands in February, Francis doesn’t know what the team will do. “But,” he says, “the good news is the mission is designed for remote operations.” More

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      NASA’s Perseverance rover will seek signs of past life on Mars

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      NASA’s next rover is a connoisseur of Martian rocks. The main job of the Perseverance rover, set to launch between July 20 and August 11, is to pick out rocks that might preserve signs of past life and store the samples for a future mission back to Earth.
      “We’re giving a gift to the future,” says planetary scientist Adrian Brown, who works at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C.
      Most of the rover’s seven sets of scientific instruments work in service of that goal, including zoomable cameras to pick out the best rocks from afar and lasers and spectrometers to identify a rock’s makeup. After the rover lands in February 2021, it’s capable of collecting and storing 20 samples within the first Martian year (about two Earth years). The NASA team plans to collect at least 30 samples over the whole mission, says planetary scientist Katie Stack Morgan of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif.
      Fortunately, Perseverance is headed to a spot that should be full of collection-worthy rocks. The landing site in Jezero crater, just north of the Martian equator, contains an ancient river delta that looks like it once carried water and silt into a long-lived lake.

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      “We can already predict which parts of that delta might give us the highest return for possible biosignatures,” Stack Morgan says. The crater has a “bathtub ring” of carbonates, minerals that settle in shallow, warm waters that are especially good at preserving signs of life. “That makes Jezero special,” she says.
      But Perseverance is more than a rock collector. The rover will probe the ground beneath its wheels, fly a helicopter, track the weather and test tech for turning Martian air into rocket fuel. Every part of the rover has a job to do.

      RIMFAX
      RIMFAX, or Radar Imager for Mars’ Subsurface Experiment, will use radio waves to probe the ground under the rover’s wheels. The instrument will take a measurement every 10 centimeters along the rover’s track and should be able to sense 10 meters deep, depending on what’s down there. The InSight lander, currently on Mars, has a seismometer that listens for Marsquakes, but a ground-penetrating radar to understand the Martian interior is a first.

      MOXIE
      Human explorers will need oxygen on Mars, but not just for breathing, says former astronaut Jeffrey Hoffman. “It’s for the rocket,” says Hoffman, now an engineer at MIT. To take off from the Martian surface and return home, astronauts will need liquid oxygen rocket fuel. Bringing all that fuel from Earth is not an option.
      To demonstrate how to make fuel from scratch, MOXIE, or Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment, will pull carbon dioxide out of the Martian atmosphere and convert it to oxygen. MOXIE will produce about 10 grams of oxygen per hour, which is only about 0.5 percent of what’s needed to make enough fuel for a human mission over the 26 months between launch windows. But the effort will teach engineers on Earth how to scale up the technology.

      Mastcam-Z
      Set atop Perseverance’s neck, Mastcam-Z, the rover’s main set of eyes, can swivel 360 degrees laterally and 180 degrees up and down to view the surrounding landscape. Like its predecessor on the Curiosity rover, the camera will take color, 3-D and panoramic images to help scientists understand the terrain and the mineralogy of the surrounding rocks. Mastcam-Z can also zoom in on distant features — a first for a Mars rover.

      SuperCam
      How can Perseverance look for signs of ancient microbes in rocks too far away to touch? Enter SuperCam, a laser spectrometer mounted on the rover’s head. SuperCam will shoot rocks with a laser from more than seven meters away, vaporizing a tiny bit of the minerals. Researchers will then analyze the vapor to help figure out what the rocks are made of, without having to drive the rover down steep slopes or up rugged crags. The laser will also measure properties of the Martian atmosphere and dust to refine weather models.

      MEDA
      MEDA, or Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer, is the rover’s weather station. Six instruments distributed across the neck, body and interior will measure air temperature, air pressure, humidity, radiation and wind speed and direction. The tools will also analyze the physical characteristics of the all-important Mars dust. Scientists hope to use the information from these sensors to better predict Mars weather.

      PIXL, SHERLOC and WATSON
      Geologists never go into the field without a hand lens. Likewise, Perseverance will be prepared with three arm-mounted magnifying instruments. PIXL, the Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry, will have a camera that can resolve grains of Martian rock and dirt to scales smaller than a millimeter. It will also detect the chemical makeup of those rocks by zapping them with X-rays and measuring the wavelength of light the rocks emit in response. SHERLOC, or Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals, will take similar measurements using an ultraviolet laser. WATSON, the Wide Angle Topographic Sensor for Operations and Engineering, will take pictures with a resolution of 30 micro­meters to put the chemistry in context. The instruments will seek signs of ancient microbes preserved in Martian rocks and soil, and help scientists decide which rocks to store for a future mission to return to Earth.
      Ingenuity
      This helicopter will be a test case for future reconnaissance missions to help the rover see further on Mars.JPL-Caltech/NASA
      Perseverance will also carry a stowaway folded up origami-style in a protective shield the size of a pizza box: a helicopter called Ingenuity. At a smooth, flat spot, Ingenuity will drop to the ground and unfold, then take about five flights in 30 Martian days. These flights are mainly to show that the copter can get enough lift in the thin Martian atmosphere. If Ingenuity is successful, future helicopters might help run reconnaissance for rovers. “There’s always a question with the rover, what’s over that cliff? What’s over that rise?” says planetary scientist Briony Horgan of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Ind. “If you have a helicopter, you can see those things ahead of time.”

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      The star cluster closest to Earth is in its death throes

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      The closest cluster of stars to Earth is falling apart and will soon die, astronomers say.
      Using the Gaia spacecraft to measure velocities of stars in the Hyades cluster and those escaping from it, researchers have predicted the cluster’s demise. “We find that there’s only something like 30 million years left for the cluster to lose its mass completely,” says Semyeong Oh, an astronomer at the University of Cambridge.
      “Compared to the Hyades’ age, that’s very short,” she says. The star cluster, just 150 light-years away and visible to the naked eye in the constellation Taurus, formed about 680 million years ago from a large cloud of gas and dust in the Milky Way.
      Stellar gatherings such as the Hyades, known as open star clusters, are born with hundreds or thousands of stars that are held close to one another by their mutual gravitational pull. But numerous forces try to tear them apart: Supernova explosions from the most massive stars eject material that had been binding the cluster together; large clouds of gas pass near the cluster and yank stars out of it; the stars themselves interact with one another and jettison the least massive ones; and the gravitational pull of the whole Milky Way galaxy lures stars away too. As a result, open star clusters rarely reach their billionth birthday.

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      The Hyades has survived longer than many of its peers. But astronomers first saw signs of trouble there in 2018, when teams in Germany and Austria independently used the European Space Agency’s Gaia space observatory to find numerous stars that had escaped the cluster. These departing stars form two long tails on opposite sides of the Hyades — the first ever seen near an open star cluster. Each stellar tail stretches hundreds of light-years and dwarfs the cluster itself, which is about 65 light-years across.
      In the new work, posted July 6 at arXiv.org, Oh and Cambridge colleague N. Wyn Evans analyzed how the cluster has lost stars over its life. It was born with about 1,200 solar masses but now has only 300 solar masses left. In fact, the two tails of escapees possess more stars than does the cluster. And the more stars the cluster loses, the less gravity it has to hold on to its remaining members, which leads to the escape of additional stars, exacerbating the cluster’s predicament.

      Siegfried Röser, an astronomer at Heidelberg University in Germany who led one of the two teams that discovered the cluster’s tails, agrees that the Hyades is in its sunset years. But he worries that it’s too early to pin a precise date on the funeral. “That seems to be a little bit risky to say,” Röser says. Running a computer simulation with the stars’ masses, positions and velocities should better show what will happen in the future, he says.
      The main culprit behind the cluster’s coming demise, Oh says, is the Milky Way. Just as the moon causes tides on Earth, lifting the seas on both the side facing the moon and the side facing away, so the galaxy exerts tides on the Hyades: The Milky Way pulls stars out of the side of the cluster that faces the galactic center as well as the cluster’s far side.
      Even millions of years after the cluster disintegrates, its stars will continue to drift through space with similar positions and velocities, like parachutists jumping out of the same airplane. “It’s still probably going to be detectable as a coherent structure in position-velocity space,” Oh says, but the stars will be so spread out from one another that they will no longer constitute a star cluster. More

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      This is the first picture of a sunlike star with multiple exoplanets

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      For the first time, an exoplanet family around a sunlike star has had its portrait taken. Astronomers used the Very Large Telescope in Chile to snap a photo of two giant planets orbiting a young star with about the same mass as the sun, researchers report July 22 in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
      The star, called TYC 8998-760-1, is about 300 light-years away in the constellation Musca. At just 17 million years old, the planetary family is a youngster compared with the 4-billion-year-old solar system.
      Although astronomers have found thousands of exoplanets, most aren’t observed directly. Instead they are spotted as shadows crossing in front of their stars, or inferred as unseen forces tugging at their stars.
      Only a few tens of planets have been photographed around other stars, and just two of those stars have more than one planet. Neither is sunlike, says astronomer Alexander Bohn of Leiden University in the Netherlands — one is more massive than the sun, the other less massive.
      Both of this star’s planets are unlike anything seen in the solar system. The inner planet, a giant weighing 14 times the mass of Jupiter, is 160 times farther from its star than Earth is from the sun. The outer one weighs six times Jupiter’s mass and orbits at twice its sibling’s distance. In comparison, the Voyager 1 spacecraft, which flew past the boundary marking the sun’s magnetic influence and into interstellar space in 2012, is still closer to the sun than either planet is to its star (SN: 9/12/13).
      This exoplanet family could provide new insight into how solar systems can form. “As with many other exoplanet discoveries, this discovery makes us aware of other scenarios that we did not think of,” Bohn says. More

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      Pinning down the sun’s birthplace just got more complicated

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      The sun could come from a large, loose-knit clan or a small family that’s always fighting.
      New computer simulations of young stars suggest two pathways to forming the solar system. The sun could have formed in a calm, large association of 10,000 stars or more, like NGC 2244 in the present-day Rosette Nebula, an idea that’s consistent with previous research. Or the sun could be from a violent, compact cluster with about 1,000 stars, like the Pleiades, researchers report July 2 in the Astrophysical Journal.Whether a star forms in a tight, rowdy cluster or a loose association can influence its future prospects. If a star is born surrounded by lots of massive siblings that explode as supernovas before a cluster spreads out, for example, that star will have more heavy elements to build planets with (SN: 8/9/19).
      To nail down a stellar birthplace, astronomers have considered the solar system’s chemistry, its shape and many other factors. Most astronomers who study the sun’s birthplace think the gentle, large association scenario is most likely, says astrophysicist Fred Adams of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, who was not involved in the new work.
      But most previous studies didn’t include stars’ motions over time. So astrophysicists Susanne Pfalzner and Kirsten Vincke, both of the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy in Bonn, Germany, ran thousands of computer simulations to see how often different kinds of young stellar families produce solar systems like ours.

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      The main solar system feature that the pair looked for was the distance to the farthest planet from the star. Planet-forming disks can extend to hundreds of astronomical units, or AU, the distance between the Earth and the sun (SN: 7/16/19). Theoretically, planets should be able to form all the way to the edge. But the sun’s planetary material is mostly packed within the orbit of Neptune.
      “You have a steep drop at 30 AU, where Neptune is,” Pfalzner says. “And this is not what you expect from a disk.”
      In 2018, Pfalzner and her colleagues showed that a passing star could have truncated and warped the solar system’s outer edge long ago. If that’s what happened, it could help point to the sun’s birth environment, Pfalzner reasoned. The key was to simulate groupings dense enough that stellar flybys happen regularly, but not so dense that the encounters happen too often and destroy disks before planets can grow up.
      “We were hoping we’d get one answer,” Pfalzner says. “It turned out there are two possibilities.” And they are wildly different from each other.
      Large associations have more stars, but the stars are more spread out and generally leave each other alone. Those associations can stay together for up to 100 million years. Compact clusters, on the other hand, see more violent encounters between young stars and don’t last as long. The stars shove each other away within a few million years.
      “This paper opens up another channel for what the sun’s birth environment looked like,” Adams says, referring to the violent cluster notion.
      The new study doesn’t cover every aspect of how a tight cluster could have affected the nascent solar system. The findings don’t account for how radiation from other stars in the cluster could erode planet-forming disks, for example, which could have shrunk the sun’s disk or even prevented the solar system from forming. The study also doesn’t explain certain heavy elements found in meteorites, which are thought to come from a nearby supernova and so could require the sun come from a long-lived stellar family.
      “I think [the research] is an interesting addition to the debate,” Adams says. “It remains to be seen how the pieces of the puzzle fit together.”
      Pfalzner thinks that the star cluster would break apart before radiation made a big difference, and there are other explanations for the heavy elements apart from a single supernova. She hopes future studies will be able to use that sort of cosmic chemistry to narrow the sun’s birthplace down even further.
      “For us humans, this is an important question,” Pfalzner says. “It’s part of our history.” More

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      The closest images of the sun ever taken reveal ‘campfire’ flares

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      Get out the marshmallows and toasting sticks. The closest images yet taken of the sun show tiny flares dubbed “campfires,” astronomers announced in a news conference on July 16.
      The images are the first from Solar Orbiter, a new sun-watching spacecraft that’s a joint project between NASA and the European Space Agency.
      “By looking from close by, we get so much sharper images,” said David Berghmans of the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Brussels in the news conference. The pictures were better than the science team expected. “When the first images came in, the first thought was, ‘This is not possible! It cannot be that good.’”   
      These never-before-seen campfire flares are thought to be little relatives of larger solar flares, powerful magnetic outbursts that shoot bright spurts of radiation into space (SN: 9/11/17). Campfire flares are a million to a billion times as small as typical solar flares. The smallest ones in the Solar Orbiter images are a few hundred kilometers across, “about the size of a European country,” Berghmans said. It’s not clear yet whether the flickers are just scaled-down solar flares, or if the two phenomena have different driving mechanisms.

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      Solar physicists think campfires could help explain one of the biggest solar mysteries: why the solar corona, the sun’s wispy outer atmosphere, is millions of degrees hotter than the solar surface (SN: 8/20/17). Together, the small but ubiquitous flares could be a source of energy to the corona that astronomers haven’t accounted for.
      “These campfires are totally insignificant each by themselves, but summing up their effect all over the sun, they might be the dominant contribution to the heating of the solar corona,” said Frédéric Auchère of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay, France, in a news release.
      Solar Orbiter captured these pictures of “campfire” flares (indicated with arrows) on the sun in extreme ultraviolet wavelengths of light. The newly spotted flares may help heat the sun’s outer atmosphere.Solar Orbiter/EUI Team/ESA and NASA, CSL, IAS, MPS, PMOD/WRC, ROB, UCL/MSSL
      Solar Orbiter launched February 9 with a suite of scientific instruments to observe the sun and its surroundings (SN: 2/9/20). The new images were taken May 30 with the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager camera when the spacecraft was 77 million kilometers from the sun, about half the distance from Earth. Berghmans and Auchère are the principal investigators for the orbiter’s ultraviolet camera.
      Other spacecraft have swooped closer to the sun. The Parker Solar Probe has gotten as close as 24 million kilometers, collecting data but no direct photos because it gets too close (SN: 12/4/19). It will eventually reach 6 million kilometers from the sun’s surface. Ultimately, Solar Orbiter will come within about 42 million kilometers of the sun, and will be the first spacecraft to fly over the sun’s poles. More

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      Despite a new measurement, the debate over the universe’s expansion rages on

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      When it comes to the expansion rate of the universe, physicists have apparently agreed to disagree.
      Two types of measurements clash over how fast the cosmos is expanding (SN: 7/30/19). Now, a new estimate from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope, or ACT, further entrenches this disagreement.
      To tease out the properties of the universe, ACT observes light emitted shortly after the Big Bang, known as the cosmic microwave background. Those observations reveal that the universe is expanding a rate of about 67.9 kilometers per second for each megaparsec (about 3 million light-years), physicists report in two papers posted online and submitted to arXiv.org. The number aligns with that of an earlier cosmic microwave background experiment called Planck (SN: 7/24/18).
      “As an independent experiment, we see the same thing,” says cosmologist Simone Aiola of the Flatiron Institute in New York City. Located in the Atacama Desert in Chile, ACT observes the cosmic microwave background with a higher resolution than Planck did.
      To measure the expansion of the universe, the Atacama Cosmology Telescope mapped out the cosmic microwave background (one portion shown). Colors represent differences in the polarization, the orientation of the light’s electromagnetic waves.ACT Collaboration
      Both ACT and Planck disagree with most estimates from objects that emitted their light more recently, such as exploding stars called supernovas and bright hearts of galaxies known as quasars. Those studies tend to indicate a faster expansion rate of around 74 kilometers per second per megaparsec.
      If no simple explanation can be found for the discrepancy, it could dramatically alter physicists’ understanding of the contents of the universe and how the cosmos changes over time. For example, dark energy, the shadowy stuff that causes the universe to expand at an accelerating rate, might behave differently than scientists thought.
      Some researchers had speculated that an unidentified source of experimental error in the Planck data could have accounted for the mismatch. But with the independent measurement from ACT, that explanation has gone out the window. That frees physicists to focus on other explanations, like potential issues with the supernova or quasar measurements, or the possibility of unexplained new physics phenomena.
      Now, says cosmologist Adam Riess of Johns Hopkins University and the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, “we can proceed without the niggling worries.” More