Space & Astronomy

Samples of the asteroid Ryugu contain bits of stardust that predate the birth of our solar system.

Slivers of Ryugu material, snagged by the Japanese Hayabusa2 spacecraft, appear to come from the solar system’s frozen fringes, rather than from the asteroid itself, scientists report July 14 in Science Advances. These foreign fragments could illuminate details of the solar system’s history.

Finding these fragments “is really unique,” says cosmochemist Ann Nguyen of NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. “It’s showing us a new type of material, but also telling us about the dynamics of material from the outer solar system.”

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The Hayabusa2 spacecraft visited the asteroid in 2018 and 2019, then returned to Earth with 5.4 grams of the space rock in 2020 (SN: 12/7/20). Scientists examined those samples in the lab in ways that can’t be done with telescopes or even spacecraft, like getting detailed measurements of chemical composition.

So far, those examinations have shown that Ryugu is rich in carbon, that it’s made of the same material as some of the rarest meteorites found on Earth, and that it was altered by water at some point in its past (SN: 6/9/22). Scientists think that Ryugu formed from the debris of a larger asteroid, which broke up in a collision and re-formed into a loose pile of rubble (SN: 3/20/19).

Nguyen, however, was searching for something different. “My focus of research is presolar grains,” tiny specks of material that formed from the ashes of dying stars, she says (SN: 1/13/20). “I was on the hunt for them.” These delicate grains contain different isotopes — atoms of an element that have different numbers of neutrons — than those formed by the sun, giving away their alien origins.

Nguyen and her colleagues examined two samples of Ryugu, each less than a millimeter in size. They then picked out tiny slivers of rock, 50 to 200 micrometers wide, called clasts, that stood out from the rest of the Ryugu sample.

Using scanning electron microscopes and other imaging techniques, Nguyen and colleagues found that two of the clasts are chemically different from the rest of Ryugu, with lower oxygen, magnesium and silicon contents, and greater amounts of iron and sulfur.

Electron microscope images of a sliver of solar system material (outlined in white) in a sample of the asteroid Ryugu show that the material is different from the rest of the asteroid. The different colors highlight different elements in the sample: oxygen (magenta), magnesium (green), silicon (light blue), iron (dark blue) and sulfur (yellow). The slivers also contain grains of silicates (white arrows) that come from outside the solar system.A. Nguyen et al/Science Advances 2023

The clasts also have much higher concentrations of presolar grains than the rest of the Ryugu material. The grains contain silicon carbide, which is easily destroyed by water, plus an extra abundance of organic matter.

That means the grains could not have been part of Ryugu’s parent body, which was extensively altered by water. The researchers think the grains were bits of a comet that formed in the outer solar system’s Kuiper belt, where the conditions were cool and dry. Then the grains sprinkled onto the rubble that formed Ryugu sometime between the original asteroid’s destruction and the rubble pile’s formation.

“Between these events, it kind of collected some other friends that came from other bodies, from different parts of the solar system,” Nguyen says. It’s not yet clear how material from the outer solar system found its way to Ryugu. Perhaps the asteroid formed farther from the sun — and hence, closer to the Kuiper belt — than it is today. “It’s interesting to visualize how this asteroid came about and what it gathered along the way.”

The discovery is “very exciting,” says cosmochemist Philipp Heck of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, who was not involved in the new work. “These clasts that got incorporated into Ryugu after it formed, they’re really valuable. I think they’re even more valuable than the Ryugu sample itself.”

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The clasts can reveal what the unaltered ingredients that formed the solar system were made of. Think of the disk that formed the planets as bread dough, Heck says. Once the dough is well-mixed, it’s hard to tell what went into it. Clasts like the ones in the Ryugu sample are like bits of unmixed flour that survived intact in the final loaf, he says — not delicious, but very informative.

“If we want to understand the ingredients from which the solar system formed, the original ingredients, we need to find these very rare, unaltered clasts,” Heck says. “This is one of them.” More

Plasma rain in the sun’s atmosphere makes a splash when it lands. New observations from the European Space Agency’s Solar Orbiter have revealed previously unseen details of how this coronal rain falls, including bright fireball effects and sudden upward surges in plasma.

“These are the highest resolution images we have ever obtained from the solar corona,” says solar physicist Patrick Antolin of Northumbria University in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. He presented the results at the National Astronomy Meeting in Cardiff, Wales, the week of July 3 and in a paper to be published in Astronomy & Astrophysics.

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The corona is the sun’s wispy upper atmosphere, the sizzling tangle of plasma and magnetism that is visible during a total eclipse (SN: 6/30/19). When clumps of scorching-hot plasma in the corona suddenly cool, they condense and fall toward the solar surface, just like water droplets in Earth’s atmosphere. This coronal rain has been observed before, but details of its formation and falling were fuzzy (SN: 5/24/18).

The 2020 launch of Solar Orbiter promised to change that (SN: 2/9/20). The probe is making passes over the sun’s unexplored polar regions, carrying high resolution cameras and other instruments to investigate solar mysteries. In late March 2022, Solar Orbiter made its closest approach to the sun to date, swooping within 49 million kilometers of our star — about a third of the distance between the sun and Earth.

In images from the spacecraft taken during that close encounter, Antolin and colleagues discovered a new feature in the coronal rain. As the plasma raindrops fell, the region immediately below them brightened. The researchers think the brightening came from other plasma below the falling rain getting compressed and heated, similar to the way meteors in Earth’s atmosphere can create fireballs just ahead of the falling rocks (SN: 2/15/13).

“This is the first time we’ve seen that kind of compression from the rain falling this clearly,” says Emily Mason, a solar physicist at Predictive Science, a research company based in San Diego, who was not involved in the study. “The resolution just wasn’t there before.”

Antolin and colleagues also saw a rebound and upward flow of material after coronal raindrops smacked onto the chromosphere, the thin layer of plasma that lies between the sun’s visible surface and the corona.

“This rain is as dense as the chromosphere,” Antolin says. “It can fall to the chromosphere and then make a splash.” This sort of splash was predicted in computer simulations but had never been observed on the actual sun before.

On their own, the observations won’t directly solve the biggest solar mysteries, like why the diffuse corona sizzles at millions of degrees Celsius higher than the surface of the sun (SN: 8/20/17). But more observations of the same phenomena can help figure out details of the coronal environment, like how easily its gas compresses, or what its chemical composition is.

“We are not able to send a probe to the inner part of the corona because it’s so hot,” Antolin says. “So we can use these observations as indirect probes of the local environment.”

The observations are “an important litmus test for Solar Orbiter itself,” Mason says. “It’s good to see what Solar Orbiter is capable of.” More

Citations
G. Agazie et al. The NANOGrav 15-Year data set: Detector characterization and noise budget. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023. doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acda88.G. Agazie et al. The NANOGrav 15-year data set: Evidence for a gravitational-wave background. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023. doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acdac6.G. Agazie et al. The NANOGrav 15-year data set: Observations and timing of 68 millisecond pulsars. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023. doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acda9a.A. Afzal et al. The NANOGrav 15-year data set: Search for signals from new physics. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023. doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acdc91G. Agazie et al. The NANOGrav 15-year data set: An astrophysical interpretation of a gravitational wave background from supermassive black hole binaries. Astrophysical Journal Letters. In press, 2023.J. Antoniadis et al. The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array I. The dataset and timing analysis. Astronomy & Astrophysics. Published online June 28, 2023.J. Antoniadis et al. The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array II. Customised pulsar noise models for spatially correlated gravitational waves. Astronomy & Astrophysics. Published online June 28, 2023.J. Antoniadis et al. The second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array. III. Search for gravitational wave signals. Astronomy & Astrophysics. Published online June 28, 2023.A. Zic et al. The Parkes Pulsar Timing Array Third Data Release. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia. Published online June 28, 2023.D.J. Reardon et al. Search for an isotropic gravitational-wave background with the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023. D.J. Reardon et al. The gravitational-wave background null hypothesis: Characterizing noise in millisecond pulsar observations with the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array. Astrophysical Journal Letters. Published online June 28, 2023.H. Xu et al. Searching for the Nano-Hertz Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background with the Chinese Pulsar Timing Array Data Release I. Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics. Vol. 23, July 2023, p. 075024. doi: 10.1088/1674-4527/acdfa5. More

One of the oldest known objects in the universe is wandering around the Milky Way.

Star cluster M92, a densely packed ball of stars roughly 27,000 light-years from Earth, is about 13.8 billion years old, researchers report in a paper submitted June 3 to arXiv.org. The newly refined age estimate makes this clump of stars nearly the same age as the universe.

Refining the ages of clusters like M92 can help put limits on the age of the universe itself. It can also help solve cosmic conundrums about how the universe evolved.

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The age is “on the edge of the age of the universe, as estimated by other groups,” says astronomer Martin Ying of Dartmouth College. “It helps us set the lower bound of the age of the universe. We don’t expect M92 to be born before the universe, right?”

Globular clusters like M92 are tight knots of stars that are thought to have all formed at the same time. That makes it easier for astronomers to measure the stars’ ages (SN: 7/23/21). Stars that are born at different masses have different fates: The big ones use up their fuel quickly and die young, and the small ones linger. Figuring out how many of the cluster’s stars have aged out of the main parts of their fuel-burning years gives a sense of when the whole cluster was born.

But those estimates rely on assumptions about how stellar evolution works. Ying and colleagues wanted to find an age measurement that would sidestep those assumptions.

Using a computer, the team created 20,000 synthetic stellar populations for M92, each for a different possible cluster age. They then compared the colors and brightnesses for each of these populations with Hubble Space Telescope observations of M92 and calculated the age that fit the collection best.

This isn’t the first time astronomers have measured M92’s age, but previous estimates relied on just one synthetic collection of stars. Comparing thousands of them reduced the uncertainty introduced by the assumptions baked into each one. The new technique reduced the uncertainty of the cluster age by about 50 percent, Ying says. The team found the cluster is 13.8 billion years old, give or take 750 million years. That’s strikingly close to the best estimate of the age of the universe: a smidge over 13.8 billion years, plus or minus 24 million years, according to the Planck satellite’s measurement of the first light emitted after the Big Bang (SN: 12/20/13).

The age of clusters like M92 is important partly because of a rising tension over how fast the universe is growing. Astronomers have known since the 1990s that the universe is expanding at an ever-increasing rate, thanks to a mysterious substance dubbed dark energy (SN: 8/25/22). But recent measurements of the rate of that expansion, a figure called the Hubble constant, disagree with each other (SN: 7/30/19).

One way around that tension is to accept a different age for the universe, says cosmologist and study coauthor Mike Boylan-Kolchin of the University of Texas at Austin.

“We often think about it as, Moses came down from Mount Sinai with ‘13.8 billion years’ written on some tablets or something, but it’s not quite like that,” he says. “If one takes the Hubble tension seriously, then one also has to say we don’t know the age of the universe that well.”

That’s where M92 comes in. Before spacecraft measured the cosmos’ earliest light, globular cluster ages were the best way to place limits on the age of the universe. That practice had fallen out of fashion for a while, says cosmologist Wendy Freedman of the University of Chicago, who was not involved in the new work.

But improvements in computing, theory, and measurements of the distances to clusters like M92 make it worth trying again.

“The Hubble tension itself is a really challenging nut to crack,” Freedman says. This measurement alone isn’t precise enough to settle the debate. But “the more kinds of constraints we have, the better,” she says. “It’s showing a way for the future.” More

Ashley Yeager is the associate news editor at Science News. She has worked at The Scientist, the Simons Foundation, Duke University and the W.M. Keck Observatory, and was the web producer for Science News from 2013 to 2015. She has a bachelor’s degree in journalism from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and a master’s degree in science writing from MIT. More

The discovery of phosphorus in a cloud at the edge of the Milky Way has extended the region in our galaxy where life might be found.

Phosphorus is one of six essential elements for life on Earth, along with nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur (SN: 12/16/22). Until now, it had been the only one of those elements missing from the farthest reaches of our galaxy. Finding phosphorus that far out could extend the galaxy’s habitable zone out from its center by roughly 22,000 light-years, researchers reported June 8 at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Albuquerque. That in turn could motivate astronomers to look in the hinterlands of the Milky Way for planets and any life they might harbor.

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The team pointed two radio telescopes at a cool, dusty gas cloud at the edge of the galaxy. The cloud is a frigid –248° Celsius — a mere 25 degrees above absolute zero. It sits about 74,000 light-years from the galactic center, nearly triple the distance Earth is from the Milky Way’s core. And it has signatures of phosphorus monoxide and phosphorus mononitride, astrochemist Lilia Koelemay said at the meeting.

Looking for phosphorus in that distant cloud was a long shot, says astrochemist Lucy Ziurys, Koelemay’s collaborator at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The element is produced only in supernovas. But there’s not a lot of material in the outer Milky Way, so it’s hard to build stars big enough to end their lives in massive, element-spewing explosions (SN: 11/2/21). Beyond 49,000 light-years from the galaxy’s center, there is only one supernova remnant known, Ziurys says.

One way phosphorus could have ended up in the outer galaxy is through a supernova closer to the center that launched a “galactic fountain,” Ziurys says. “A supernova explodes, the material gets thrown out of the galactic plane, then settles back down near the galactic edge.” The material would be very diluted there, but “if there are different supernovae going off, they’re going to keep polluting the outer galaxy,” she says.

“The detection of the phosphorus-bearing molecules … seems clear and compelling,” says Francesco Fontani, an astrophysicist at the Italian Institute for Astrophysics in Florence, who was not involved in the study. He has observed some of the other essential elements for life in the outer galaxy, but never phosphorus.

The detection of phosphorus in a cloud at the edge of the Milky Way (position marked with a circle at the bottom of this illustration) means that the galactic habitable zone, which previously was thought to end about 52,000 light-years from the center (blue region), might extend at least 22,000 light-years farther out (red region). The yellow dot marks the position of the sun.JPL-Caltech/NASA, R. Hurt/SSC/Caltech, L. Koelemay, C. Chang

Because astronomers had not found the six life-essential elements so far from the galactic center, they assumed the region where life could exist in the Milky Way — what’s called the galactic habitable zone — extended at most to the farthest supernova they’d found, about 52,000 light years from the galactic center. There’s an assumed inner edge as well at about 6,500 light-years from the galaxy’s core. The relatively large numbers of supernovas occurring there would expose any planets in the region to intense ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, making it difficult for life to last for long.

“This detection, together with previous detections of organic molecules at similar large distances from the galactic center, supports the idea that the outer boundaries of the galactic habitable zone could be wider than what we previously thought,” Fontani says.

For life to emerge so far from the galaxy’s center, planets would need to exist out there. So far, they have been observed only relatively close to the solar system — most within a few thousand light-years. “I don’t think we know right now whether they can form at larger galactic-central distances,” Ziurys says. Finding the six elements for life at the galaxy’s edge, she says, will hopefully spur on the search for the most distant places where it could thrive. More

CAMBRIDGE, MASS. — For the first time, astronomers have detected starlight from distant galaxies that host extremely bright supermassive black holes called quasars.

Data from the James Webb Space Telescope reveal that four of these galaxies are massive, compact and possibly disk-shaped, astronomers report June 12 at the JWST First Light meeting. Studying the galaxies could help solve the mystery of how black holes in the early universe grew so big so fast (SN: 1/18/21).

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“Ever since the discovery of [distant] quasars, there have been studies trying to detect their host galaxies,” said MIT astrophysicist Minghao Yue. But until JWST’s sharp infrared eyes came along, it wasn’t possible. “This opens up brand new windows towards finally understanding luminous quasars and their host galaxies.”

Quasars are black holes that are feeding so furiously, the material they gobble heats to white-hot temperatures, shining brighter than the stars in the galaxies around them. They’re so bright and distant that each appears as a single, starlike point of light.

Two independent groups used that starlike quality to erase the black hole glow from images of their galaxies, like a sculptor coaxing a figure out of marble.

Yue and colleagues used JWST to observe six quasar-hosting galaxies. Around the same time, astrophysicist Xuheng Ding of the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe in Tokyo and colleagues used JWST to look at another pair of quasars. The light from all the quasars was emitted more than 12.8 billion years ago, or less than a billion years after the Big Bang.

The teams used actual stars in the images to simulate the starlike shapes of the quasars. Then they subtracted the simulated quasar from the image of each whole galaxy, and voilà: Only starlight remained.

Ding’s team got a direct peek at both of their galaxies, while Yue’s team glimpsed two of their six. All the measured galaxies appear to be less than a tenth as wide as the Milky Way, measuring between 2,600 and 8,000 light-years across. The two galaxies that Yue and colleagues observed contain enough stars to make up between 10 billion and 100 billion times the mass of the sun, the researchers estimate. The pair that Ding and colleagues looked at weigh in at about 25 billion and 63 billion solar masses, the team reported at the meeting and in a study to appear in Nature.

Those masses are comparable to that of all the stars in the Milky Way, which in total add up to roughly 60 billion times the mass of the sun. That’s surprisingly massive for so early in the universe’s history.

What’s more, the galaxies seem to break a rule set by observations of galaxies in the nearby universe. Locally, galaxies tend to split their mass between stars and black holes in a predictable way: The more massive its central supermassive black hole, the more stars a galaxy has. These galaxies appear to pack more mass into their black hole than their amount of stars should allow.

“At least for these luminous quasars, they really are over-massive,” Yue said.

The mass calculations might prove to be overestimates, says astrophysicist Paul Shapiro of the University of Texas at Austin who was not involved in either study. Converting the light that JWST can see into stars rests on assumptions about how many stars of various masses a galaxy has. Modern galaxies have a lot more dim, lightweight stars than bright, hefty ones, so astronomers typically assume that the brightest stars they see are just the tip of the iceberg. But that might not have been the case 800 million years after the Big Bang, Shapiro says.

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“You’re observing the tail and inferring the dog,” he says. “If there were a mass distribution that favors high-mass stars, you could be significantly overestimating the mass associated with the light.”

But “the fact that we can see it at all is very exciting,” says astronomer Madeline Marshall of the National Research Council Canada in Victoria. The fact that two groups are reporting starlight from quasar hosts independently is very convincing, she says.

“Pre-JWST, we could not detect host galaxies of [distant] quasars,” she said at the meeting. “Now, with only the first year of observations … we can actually detect some of these hosts for the first time.”

These first few quasar hosts are just the beginning, Ding says. JWST is scheduled to observe at least 10 more, some of which are even farther away. A larger sample will help astronomers figure out enduring cosmic riddles about how black holes and galaxies influence each other as they grow.

“We don’t know how black holes can be so big in the early universe,” Ding says. “You need to understand the environment of this monster, how it can collect so much matter to it. So knowing the conditions — the mass of the host galaxies, for example — at least then you can say how their local environment is.” More